Why do some reactions explode in seconds while others take centuries? Welcome to the world of chemical kinetics—where timing is everything.

Introduction: Timing Is Everything in Chemistry

Have you ever wondered why paper burns quickly but rust forms slowly? Or why do baking soda and vinegar react in a fizzing frenzy, while some reactions quietly simmer away?
The rate at which a chemical reaction occurs is not just an interesting curiosity—it’s a vital piece of the chemistry puzzle. Whether it’s designing pharmaceuticals, optimizing industrial processes, or understanding how cells work, reaction rates and mechanisms are central to unlocking how matter changes.
In this post, we dive deep into two major pillars of chemical kinetics:

• Rate Laws: The mathematical expressions that describe how fast a reaction happens.
• Reaction Mechanisms: The step-by-step pathway a reaction follows from reactants to products.

What Is Reaction Rate?

Let’s start with the basics. The reaction rate refers to how quickly the concentration of a reactant or product changes over time. It’s typically expressed in terms of mol/L·s.

For a reaction:

A + B → C

The rate can be expressed as:

Rate = ─ (d[A])/dt = ─ (d[B])/dt = ─ (d[C])/dt

The minus signs for reactants indicate that their concentrations decrease over time, while the product increases.

The Rate Law: A Reaction’s Signature Formula

The rate law is a mathematical expression that relates the reaction rate to the concentrations of the reactants, often in the form:

Rate = k[A]^m [B]ⁿ

Where:

• k is the rate constant
• [A] and [B] are the concentrations of reactants
• m and n are the reaction orders

Key Points:

• The exponents (m and n) are not always the same as the coefficients in the balanced equation.
• The overall order of the reaction is the sum of the individual orders: m + n
• Rate laws must be determined experimentally, not from the balanced chemical equation.

Example:

For the reaction:

2NO + O₂ → 2NO₂

The experimentally determined rate law might be:

Rate = k [NO]²[O₂]

This tells us the reaction is second order in NO, first order in O₂, and third order overall.

Units of the Rate Constant (k)

The units of k depend on the overall order of the reaction:

This helps verify whether your calculated rate law is dimensionally correct.

Determining Rate Laws: The Initial Rates Method

To find a rate law, chemists often use the method of initial rates:

1. Run multiple trials with varying concentrations of reactants.
2. Measure the initial rate of reaction.
3. Compare how changes in concentration affect the rate.

For example, if doubling [A] doubles the rate, the reaction is first-order in A.

Integrated Rate Laws: Predicting Concentrations Over Time

While the basic rate law tells us the instantaneous rate, integrated rate laws help predict the concentration of reactants or products at any time t.

Common Forms:

These allow you to graph reaction progress and determine the half-life of a substance.

Reaction Mechanisms: The Hidden Pathway

A reaction mechanism is the detailed sequence of elementary steps by which a chemical reaction occurs. While the overall balanced equation shows the start and end, the mechanism shows how the transformation happens.

Elementary Steps

Each step in a mechanism is called an elementary reaction—a single event involving a collision or transformation of molecules.
Examples:

• Unimolecular: A → Products
• Bimolecular: A + B → Products
• Termolecular: A + B + C → Products (rare)

The rate law for an elementary step can be written directly from its molecularity.

The Rate-Determining Step (RDS)

In multi-step reactions, not all steps occur at the same speed. The slowest step is the rate-determining step (RDS)—it controls the overall rate, like the narrowest part of a funnel.
Think of the RDS as the bottleneck of the reaction highway.
Only the reactants involved in the RDS appear in the overall rate law.

Intermediates and Catalysts

Two special species often show up in mechanisms:

• Intermediate: Formed in one step and consumed in another (e.g., O₃ in atmospheric reactions).
• Catalyst: Speeds up the reaction without being consumed (appears at the start and end).

They never appear in the overall balanced equation but are crucial for understanding how a reaction proceeds.

Putting It All Together: Example Mechanism

Reaction:

2NO₂ → 2NO

Proposed mechanism:

1. NO₂ + NO₂ → NO₃ + NO (slow)
2. NO₃ + NO₂ → NO + O₂ + NO₂ (fast)

• Intermediate: NO₃
• Rate-determining step: Step 1
• Rate Law: Since step 1 is slow and involves 2 NO₂ molecules,

Rate = k [NO_₂]²

Graphical Interpretation

Different orders of reactions produce distinct graphs:

• Zero-order: [A] vs. time is linear
• First-order: ln[A] vs. time is linear
• Second-order: 1/[A] vs. time is linear

These plots help identify the order of reaction experimentally.

Why It Matters: Real-World Applications

• Pharmaceuticals: Understanding how quickly a drug breaks down.
• Environmental chemistry: Modeling ozone depletion.
• Industrial production: Optimizing yields by adjusting reaction conditions.
• Biochemistry: Enzyme kinetics follows similar rate principles.

Mastering rate laws and mechanisms is essential for anyone aiming to innovate or understand complex chemical systems.

Summary Table

Final Thoughts: Decoding Nature’s Stopwatch

Chemical reactions are more than just rearrangements of atoms—they’re choreographed performances with timing, sequence, and rhythm. Rate laws tell us how fast, while mechanisms tell us how.

Together, they unlock the secrets of everything from cooking to combustion, from medicine to materials science. Understanding chemical kinetics is like owning a stopwatch that reveals the hidden tempo of the universe.

Next time you mix vinegar and baking soda, or strike a match, remember—there’s a beautiful equation behind every burst of speed.

Read More: Chaos That Drives Chemistry: Understanding Entropy & Spontaneity in Reactions

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Understanding the Basics of Hybridization

Hybridization is a key concept in chemistry that describes how atomic orbitals combine to generate new hybrid orbitals which are then utilized to construct chemical bonds. This concept aids in predicting molecular shapes and bonding characteristics important for understanding chemical reactivity and stability.

The Process of Hybridization

Hybridization works when atomic orbitals, like s and p orbitals, mix to create new orbitals with distinct energy levels and shapes. The molecular geometry and the number of atomic orbitals involved determine the type of hybridization.

• sp Hybridization: Two sp hybrid orbitals are created when one s orbital and one p orbital combine. A linear shape is produced as a result of this (e.g., BeCl₂).
• sp² Hybridization: A trigonal planar shape (e.g., BF₃) is produced when one s orbital and two p orbitals combine to form three sp² hybrid orbitals.
• sp³ Hybridization: A tetrahedral shape (e.g., CH₄) is produced when one s orbital and two p orbitals combine to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals.
• sp³d and sp³d² Hybridization: A trigonal bipyramidal and octahedral geometries (e.g., PCl₅ and SF₆) involve the mixing of d orbitals.

The function of Bonding in Molecular Structure

Covalent Bonding and Hybridization

Covalent bond is formed when atoms share electrons to achieve stability. The type of covalent bond (single, double or triple) influences molecular structure:

• Single bonds: Sigma bond formed by sp³ hybridization (as in CH₄).
• Double bonds: Found in sp² hybridization (as in C₂H₄) and contain one sigma and one pi bond.
• Triple bonds: Have one sigma and two pi bonds, found in sp hybridization (as in C₂H₂).

Molecular Geometry and VSEPR Theory

The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory aids in prediction of molecular structures on basis of electron pair repulsions. The final 3D structure of molecules is determined by hybridization in combination with VSEPR theory.

Chemistry Needs Hybridization

Molecular bonding, shapes, and following properties are influenced by hybridization like:

1. Reactivity: Control the molecules’ interaction.
2. Polarity: Influences intermolecular forces and solubility.
3. Bond Strength: Affects stability and reaction energy.

Conclusion: A Crucial Idea in Chemistry

Understanding hybridization, bonding, and molecular structure is important for predicting chemical behavior, creating novel materials and investigating molecular interactions. These ideas form the cornerstone of contemporary chemistry, whether it is in organic chemistry, materials science or drug development.

Read More: Exploring the Interdisciplinary Nature of Applied Chemistry: Innovations and Applications Across Disciplines

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Applied chemistry is a dynamic and evolving field that integrates multiple scientific disciplines to solve practical challenges. It is a crucial link between theoretical chemistry and real-world applications, impacting industries such as healthcare, environmental science, energy, and materials engineering. This blog explores how applied chemistry interacts with various disciplines and contributes to technological advancements.

1. Chemistry and Materials Science

Materials science relies heavily on chemistry for the development of advanced materials. Chemists work alongside material scientists to design nanomaterials, polymers, and composites that enhance product durability and performance. Breakthroughs such as self-healing polymers and superconducting materials exemplify the synergy between chemistry and engineering, leading to new innovations in aerospace, electronics, and biomedical industries.

2. Environmental Science and Green Chemistry

Sustainability is a growing concern, and applied chemistry plays a vital role in creating environmentally friendly solutions. Green chemistry principles emphasize waste reduction, safer chemical processes, and the development of biodegradable materials. Technologies like hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) transform biomass into valuable carbon-based products, supporting clean energy initiatives and sustainable waste management.

3. Applied Chemistry in Medicine and Biotechnology

The pharmaceutical and biotechnology sectors depend on chemistry for drug discovery, bioengineering, and medical diagnostics. Chemists contribute to the design of synthetic drugs, targeted drug delivery systems, and biosensors. For instance, metal oxide nanoparticles are used in advanced cancer treatments, demonstrating the integration of chemistry with biotechnology and medical research.

4. Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry

Chemical engineering combines chemistry and engineering principles to optimize industrial processes. The development of heterogeneous catalysts improves reaction efficiency in petroleum refining, polymer production, and fine chemical synthesis. Chemical engineers and chemists collaborate to develop energy-efficient and cost-effective solutions for large-scale manufacturing operations.

5. Computational Chemistry and Data Science

Computational tools have revolutionized chemistry by enabling molecular modeling, reaction prediction, and AI-driven analysis. Chemists now use machine learning algorithms to accelerate drug discovery and optimize material synthesis. The fusion of chemistry with data science enhances predictive accuracy and speeds up the innovation cycle.

6. Renewable Energy and Electrochemistry

The demand for clean energy has increased interest in electrochemistry and sustainable fuel sources. Chemists contribute to the development of fuel cells, solar cells, and hydrogen production technologies. Innovations such as high-efficiency electrocatalysts improve hydrogen generation and energy storage systems, driving progress in the renewable energy sector.

7. Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry

Applied chemistry is essential in food preservation, packaging, and agricultural productivity. The development of controlled-release fertilizers, food additives, and pesticide formulations enhances food quality and safety while reducing environmental impact. Chemistry-driven innovations ensure sustainable agricultural practices and improved food security.

Conclusion

The interdisciplinary nature of applied chemistry fosters innovation across multiple industries. By merging chemistry with engineering, medicine, environmental science, and data analytics, researchers develop groundbreaking solutions to modern challenges. As technology advances, applied chemistry will continue to play a pivotal role in shaping a sustainable and technologically advanced future.

Read More: Emerging Trends and Challenges in Drug Development: The Future of Medicine

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The James Webb Space Telescope: A Cosmic Quest for Life

From the dawn of civilization, humanity has gazed at the stars, pondering our place in the universe and asking a fundamental question: Are we alone? The dream of discovering life beyond Earth has ignited imaginations, fueled scientific inquiry, and inspired ambitious space missions. Now, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the most powerful and complex telescope ever built, stands as a beacon of this enduring quest. It’s poised to revolutionize our understanding of exoplanets and dramatically accelerate the search for life beyond our solar system, offering an unprecedented glimpse into the atmospheres of distant worlds and their potential for habitability.

Peering into the Unknown: JWST’s Groundbreaking Capabilities

JWST’s unprecedented capabilities open a new window into the atmospheres of distant worlds, allowing us to analyze their chemical composition with remarkable precision. This is crucial because the presence of certain molecules, like water vapor, methane, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, can be strong indicators of biological activity. As Dr. Sara Seager, a renowned planetary scientist at MIT, explains, “Atmospheric biosignatures are the most promising way to detect life on exoplanets.” (Seager, 2018). These biosignatures, while not definitive proof of life, offer compelling evidence of conditions conducive to life as we understand it, making the search for them a central driving force behind JWST’s mission.

Decoding Starlight: Unraveling Exoplanet Atmospheres

Unlike previous telescopes, JWST can observe exoplanets as they transit their host stars. During these transits, starlight filters through the planet’s atmosphere, leaving a unique spectral fingerprint. JWST’s highly sensitive instruments, such as the Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) and the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI), can capture these fingerprints, revealing the presence and abundance of various molecules in the atmosphere. This technique, known as transmission spectroscopy, allows scientists to probe the chemical makeup of exoplanet atmospheres with unprecedented detail.

Hot Exoplanet Atmosphere in 3D

Whispers of Life? The Search for Disequilibrium Gases

This spectroscopic analysis is like dissecting the starlight to identify its constituent parts. For instance, the detection of water vapor in an exoplanet’s atmosphere suggests the possibility of oceans on its surface, a crucial ingredient for life as we know it. Similarly, the simultaneous presence of methane and oxygen could indicate active geological processes or even, potentially, biological activity. “The combination of disequilibrium gases in an atmosphere is a compelling hint of life,” (Coustenis and Encrenaz 2013). The disequilibrium suggests an active source replenishing these gases, as they would otherwise react and reach equilibrium, making their presence a tantalizing clue.

Targeting the Habitable Zone: Promising Worlds in JWST’s Gaze

JWST is not just randomly observing exoplanets; it is strategically targeting specific worlds that show the most promise for habitability. These include:

• Super-Earths: Worlds Ripe for Discovery: These planets, larger than Earth but smaller than Neptune, are particularly intriguing because they could potentially hold liquid water on their surfaces. JWST can analyze their atmospheres to determine if they have the right conditions for life. Their larger size compared to Earth makes them easier to observe and characterize.
• Trappist-1: A System of Seven Earth-Sized Wonders: This system of seven Earth-sized planets orbiting an ultra-cool dwarf star is a prime target for JWST. Several of these planets reside within the star’s habitable zone, where temperatures could allow for liquid water. (Gillon et al., 2017) The proximity of this system and the transiting nature of the planets make it ideal for atmospheric studies.

Earth-sized planet in TRAPPIST-1 system has no atmosphere, James Webb Space Telescope finds

• Proxima Centauri b: A Neighboring Mystery: This exoplanet, orbiting the closest star to our Sun, is another promising candidate. Although it is tidally locked, meaning one side always faces the star, scientists believe that it could still have habitable regions. Understanding the atmospheric circulation and potential for cloud formation on tidally locked planets is crucial for assessing their habitability.

Beyond Biosignatures: Unveiling the Full Picture

Beyond the search for biosignatures, JWST’s observations can also provide valuable insights into other aspects of exoplanet environments, such as:

• Climate and Weather: Decoding Alien Atmospheres: JWST can map the temperature distribution and cloud cover of exoplanets, helping us understand their climate and weather patterns. This information is essential for building accurate models of exoplanet atmospheres and predicting their long-term habitability.
• Planetary Formation and Evolution: Tracing the Origins of Worlds: By studying the atmospheres of young exoplanets, we can learn about how planets form and evolve over time. This helps us understand the processes that lead to the formation of habitable planets.
• Exomoons: Hidden Habitats? JWST can also search for exomoons, which are moons orbiting exoplanets. These could also be potential habitats for life. Exomoons, though smaller and more difficult to detect, could offer stable environments for life, shielded from the intense radiation of their host stars.

The Dawn of a New Era: The Future of Exoplanet Exploration

The James Webb Space Telescope represents a giant leap forward in the search for life beyond Earth. Its revolutionary capabilities will allow us to explore exoplanet atmospheres in unprecedented detail, potentially uncovering the first evidence of extraterrestrial life. While the detection of biosignatures would be a monumental discovery, even the absence of such signs will provide valuable information about the diversity of planetary systems and the conditions necessary for life to arise. JWST’s observations will not only revolutionize our understanding of exoplanets but also provide crucial context for the origin and evolution of life itself. As we continue to explore the cosmos with JWST, peering deeper into the vast expanse of space and time, we are one step closer to answering the age-old question: Are we alone? The potential for discovery is immense, and the journey of exploration has only just begun. Future missions, building upon the foundation laid by JWST, will further refine our search and hopefully, one day, provide a definitive answer.

References

• S. Seager, International Journal of Astrobiology, 17, 294 – 302 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1473550417000052
• A. Coustenis, and T. Encrenaz,. Life Beyond Earth. (Cambridge University Press, 2013). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139206921
• M. Gillon, A. Triaud, and B. O. Demory et al. Seven temperate terrestrial planets around the nearby ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1. Nature., 542, 456–460 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21360.

Read More: From Plasma to Power: The Engineering Challenges of Fusion Energy

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Author: Dr. Hajira Mahmood

The Role of Medicinal Chemistry in Drug Discovery

At the heart of medicinal chemistry is drug discovery. Medicinal chemists design molecules to target specific biological pathways involved in disease. The process begins with identifying a biological target, such as a protein or enzyme, and then designing a molecule that can interact with it effectively. Through understanding the structure-activity relationship (SAR), chemists can optimize the molecular structure to improve efficacy and minimize side effects.
A prime example of medicinal chemistry in action is the development of HIV protease inhibitors, which target the enzymes responsible for HIV replication. These inhibitors have revolutionized the treatment of HIV/AIDS and continue to improve patient quality of life.

Targeted Therapies: The Shift from Traditional to Precision Medicine

One of the most significant advancements in medicinal chemistry is the development of targeted therapies. Unlike traditional treatments like chemotherapy, which indiscriminately kill both cancerous and healthy cells, targeted therapies focus specifically on molecules involved in disease processes. By directly targeting cancer cells, these therapies minimize damage to healthy cells, reducing side effects.
For example, monoclonal antibodies, such as trastuzumab (Herceptin), have been developed to target specific proteins on cancer cells, revolutionizing the way we treat breast cancer and other types of cancer.

Personalized Medicine: Tailoring Treatment to the Individual

Personalized medicine is a cutting-edge approach that customizes healthcare treatments based on an individual’s genetic makeup. By studying how genes affect drug metabolism and response, medicinal chemists can design drugs that are more effective for each patient. This shift is leading to more precise treatments and fewer adverse effects.
In cancer treatment, for instance, genetic testing helps identify mutations that drive the disease, allowing doctors to prescribe drugs that target those specific genetic mutations. This approach has transformed the treatment of cancers like lung and breast cancer, improving survival rates and reducing harmful side effects.

Cutting-Edge Technologies Driving Medicinal Chemistry Forward

Technological advancements, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and nanotechnology, are transforming the landscape of medicinal chemistry. AI is accelerating drug discovery by analyzing vast datasets to predict how new compounds will behave in the body, speeding up the process of identifying new drugs. By automating data analysis, AI enables faster and more accurate predictions, reducing the time and cost of drug development.
Nanotechnology, on the other hand, has opened up new possibilities for drug delivery. Tiny nanoparticles can be designed to carry drugs directly to targeted cells, such as cancer cells. This targeted delivery method improves the precision of treatments and minimizes harm to healthy tissues.

The Future of Medicinal Chemistry in Healthcare

The future of medicinal chemistry holds immense potential. Advances in gene editing technologies like CRISPR are opening the door to curing genetic disorders by directly correcting faulty genes. Personalized medicine will continue to evolve, with treatments tailored to individuals’ genetic profiles, leading to more effective and safer therapies.
As we learn more about the molecular and genetic basis of diseases, medicinal chemistry will be key in developing targeted treatments that address these root causes. The integration of AI and nanotechnology will likely enhance drug development, making treatments faster, cheaper, and more precise.

The Continuing Evolution of Medicinal Chemistry

Medicinal chemistry is transforming healthcare in profound ways. From drug discovery to personalized medicine and cutting-edge technologies, this field is shaping the future of treatments and improving patient outcomes. As we move forward, the role of medicinal chemistry will continue to expand, offering new and innovative solutions for the challenges of modern medicine. The future of healthcare is brighter than ever, thanks to the science of medicinal chemistry.

Read More: From Waves to Particles: Exploring Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals

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Plasma-Assisted Engineering of Functional Materials for Electronics, Energy, and Environmental Solutions. Plasma-assisted engineering is essential for the advancement of sophisticated materials utilized in electronics, energy, and environmental sectors. Methods such as Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD), plasma etching, and surface treatment facilitate the development of high-performance materials tailored for semiconductors, energy storage solutions, and pollution management systems. Furthermore, the discussion emphasizes the significant influence of plasma on nanostructure engineering and its advantages for the environment, particularly in waste treatment and sustainable recycling practices. The paper concludes by exploring the promising future of plasma technologies in driving innovation within materials science.

Introduction

Plasma technology, recognized for its capacity to generate and manipulate reactive species such as ions, electrons, and radicals, has experienced significant expansion in its applications within material science. As an ionized gas, plasma is crucial for the modification and engineering of materials at the atomic scale. Over the past few decades, plasma-assisted methods have become vital instruments in fields such as electronics, energy, and environmental science, providing precise control over various material characteristics, including surface structure, electrical conductivity, and chemical reactivity. These advancements in plasma technologies enable the synthesis and alteration of a wide range of functional materials, thereby facilitating the development of high-performance devices for semiconductor electronics, energy storage solutions, and environmental cleanup initiatives (Walden et al. 2024).

In the realm of electronics, various plasma processing methods, including Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD), plasma etching, and plasma-enhanced ion implantation, have played a crucial role in the miniaturization of electronic devices and the creation of sophisticated materials for integrated circuits, sensors, and photonics, as noted by Rastogi et al. (2017).

Dry Etching

These plasma treatment techniques facilitate surface modifications that improve the adhesion, electrical conductivity, and mechanical strength of materials, rendering them particularly suitable for electronic components such as transistors, memory devices, and flexible electronics, according to Corbella et al. (2021). In the energy sector, advancements in plasma technologies have led to the creation of high-performance electrodes, catalysts, and thin-film materials, which are essential for energy storage solutions like batteries and supercapacitors, as well as for renewable energy technologies, including fuel cells and solar cells, as highlighted by Dou et al. (2018). Furthermore, the application of plasma in environmental contexts has gained prominence, especially in the treatment of hazardous waste, water purification, and material recycling, providing more sustainable and effective approaches to tackle pollution and waste management challenges, as discussed by Du and Yan (2017).

This article aims to provide an extensive overview of the role of plasma-assisted engineering in the development of functional materials across these three domains. It will highlight the key advances, current challenges, and future directions of plasma processing technologies in electronics, energy, and environmental sectors.

Plasma-Assisted Engineering in Electronics

The electronics sector has experienced a significant transformation due to the advent of plasma-assisted techniques in the fabrication of materials intended for high-performance devices. Among these methods, plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) stands out as a prevalent approach for the deposition of thin films composed of semiconducting materials, such as silicon, silicon dioxide, and various metal oxides.

Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition Systems

One of the key benefits of PECVD is its capability to facilitate low-temperature deposition, which is particularly advantageous for applying films onto substrates that are sensitive to heat, including flexible electronics and organic semiconductors (Corbella et al. 2021). This technique enables the deposition of materials that exhibit a high degree of uniformity in thickness and exceptional chemical purity, both of which are critical for ensuring the performance and reliability of microelectronic devices.

Alongside thin-film deposition, plasma etching serves as an essential method for patterning semiconductor wafers in the fabrication of integrated circuits. This technique facilitates the formation of nanoscale features and structures on semiconductor surfaces by selectively eliminating material through chemical interactions between the plasma and the substrate, as noted by Alberto et al. (2011).

Thin-Film Deposition: An Overview

The significance of this process is underscored in the manufacturing of semiconductor devices that demand precise feature dimensions and high dimensional accuracy, thereby supporting the ongoing miniaturization of electronic components. Additionally, plasma-assisted doping and implantation methods have been extensively utilized to alter the electronic characteristics of semiconductor materials by incorporating dopants into the substrate, which further improves the performance of microelectronic devices, as highlighted by Rahman et al. (2023).

An essential focus in the field of electronics is the development of nanomaterials, particularly carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene. Utilizing plasma-assisted techniques presents a scalable and economically viable method for the production of these nanomaterials, which are renowned for their remarkable mechanical, electrical, and thermal characteristics (Dou et al. 2018).

Single-walled carbon nanotubes

Among these techniques, plasma-based chemical vapor deposition (CVD) stands out for its effectiveness in cultivating high-quality CNTs and graphene films, facilitating their application in advanced electronic devices such as flexible and transparent electronics, sensors, and high-frequency transistors (Sultan et al., 2018). The capability to meticulously regulate the dimensions, morphology, and composition of these nanomaterials through plasma processing has resulted in notable progress in the realms of nanoelectronics and optoelectronics.

Plasma-Assisted Engineering in Energy Applications

In the field of energy, plasma-assisted engineering has shown considerable promise in improving the performance of materials utilized for energy storage, conversion, and harvesting. Notably, solar cells have reaped significant benefits from the application of plasma-enhanced methods. These plasma treatments are frequently employed in the production of thin-film solar cells, including those made from silicon, cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), as they enhance the surface characteristics of the films and boost their efficiency (Rohde et al, 2014).

Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide Solar Cells

The process of plasma-enhanced deposition facilitates the growth of thin films with high purity and precise stoichiometry, which are essential for attaining optimal photovoltaic conversion efficiencies. Additionally, plasma techniques can effectively alter the interfaces between various layers within solar cells, thereby enhancing charge collection efficiency and overall device stability (Park et al. 2013).

Plasma techniques are essential in the realm of energy storage technologies. Methods that utilize plasma assistance are employed in the fabrication of electrodes for various energy storage devices, including batteries and supercapacitors. For example, the application of plasma treatment can significantly enhance the surface area of electrodes and improve their electrochemical stability, resulting in increased energy density and extended cycle life for lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors, as noted by Wang and Chen (2022). Furthermore, the plasma treatment of carbon-based materials, such as graphene and activated carbon, has demonstrated an increase in electrical conductivity and surface roughness, which in turn leads to superior performance in energy storage systems.

In the realm of fuel cells, the application of plasma-assisted engineering has been utilized to improve the catalytic characteristics of electrode materials, notably platinum, and palladium, which are vital for the effective functioning of fuel cell reactions. The process of plasma treatment can augment the surface area of these catalysts, thereby enhancing their activity and durability, which is crucial for the commercial success of fuel cells as a sustainable energy alternative  (Dou et al., 2018). Additionally, plasma-enhanced methodologies have been employed to create proton-conducting materials for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), playing a significant role in the advancement of high-efficiency, low-emission power generation systems.

Plasma-Assisted Engineering in Environmental Solutions

Plasma-assisted methods are increasingly utilized in the environmental field, providing novel approaches to address a range of pollution-related issues. Technologies based on plasma, such as plasma arc gasification, have been employed to manage hazardous waste by transforming organic substances into synthetic gases and useful by-products, thereby presenting an environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional waste disposal practices (Wang and Chen 2022). This process of plasma gasification is capable of effectively handling diverse waste types, including plastics, municipal solid waste (MSW), and biomass, converting them into energy-dense gases that can be harnessed for electricity generation or utilized as raw materials in chemical manufacturing.

Plasma technologies are increasingly recognized for their significant contributions to water purification, alongside their established role in waste treatment. The generation of highly reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals and ozone, through plasma discharges, facilitates the breakdown of various pollutants in water, including heavy metals, organic contaminants, and pathogens, as noted by Du and Yan (2017). The effectiveness of plasma-assisted water treatment in eliminating toxic substances from industrial effluents presents a sustainable and economically viable approach to wastewater management. Additionally, these plasma techniques have been successfully applied in the remediation of contaminated soils, where plasma-induced reactions can effectively decompose hazardous chemicals, thereby enhancing soil quality and supporting environmental conservation initiatives.

Another noteworthy application of plasma technology in the field of environmental engineering is its role in material recycling. Plasma arc furnaces are utilized to extract valuable metals from electronic waste (e-waste),

Plasma In The Waste Treatment Industry

which significantly mitigates the environmental consequences associated with resource extraction and reduces the reliance on mining activities, as highlighted by Alberto et al. (2011). Furthermore, plasma-assisted recycling technologies facilitate the recovery of rare earth elements from industrial by-products, thereby contributing to the circular economy and promoting sustainable resource utilization.

Conclusion

Plasma-assisted engineering represents a groundbreaking approach in the creation of advanced materials across various sectors, including electronics, energy, and environmental management. The utilization of plasma techniques provides exceptional atomic-level accuracy and heightened reactivity, which significantly improves the properties of materials used in semiconductors, energy storage systems, and pollution mitigation technologies. In the realm of electronics, plasma has facilitated the development of sophisticated materials essential for next-generation devices, while in the energy sector, it plays a crucial role in the fabrication of electrodes, catalysts, and films for solar cells and batteries. Furthermore, plasma technology contributes to sustainable practices in waste management, water purification, and recycling efforts. As the need for advanced materials continues to escalate, plasma engineering is poised to be instrumental in propelling future technological innovations, with ongoing research dedicated to refining plasma processes and investigating novel methodologies.

References

1. R. Walden et al. “Nonthermal plasma technologies for advanced functional material processing and current applications: Opportunities and challenges”, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering., 12, 113541 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.113541
2. V. Rastogi et al. “Plasma etch challenges for next-generation semiconductor manufacturing, SPIE Newsroom., (2017). 10.1117/2.1201706.006842
3. C. Corbellaet al. “Plasma Applications for Material Modification”, (Jenny Stanford Publishing, 2021). 10.1201/9781003119203-2
4. S. Dou et al. “Plasma-Assisted Synthesis and Surface Modification of Electrode Materials for Renewable Energy”, Advanced Materials., 30, 1705850 (2018).  https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201705850
5. C. M. Du, and J. H. Yan, “Plasma Remediation Technology for Environmental Protection”, (Springer, Singapore 2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3656-9
6. G. Alberto et al. “Plasma Processing of Nanomaterials: Emerging Technologies for Sensing and Energy Applications”,  Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.,  11, 8206-8213 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2011.5023
7. T. U. Rahman et al. “Progress in plasma doping semiconductor photocatalysts for efficient pollutant remediation and hydrogen generation”, Separation and Purification Technology., 320, 124141 ( 2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.124141
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Abstract

Organic Contamination of Food. Organic compounds and their derivatives are among the most important and widely used additives in the food industry. Contamination is the strong and persistent sensation of being polluted, diseased, or threatened as a result of prolonged contact with a filthy, impure, contagious, or hazardous person, place, or thing. Fear, disgust, dirtiness, moral impurity, and disgrace are among the negative feelings that accompany the sensation of contamination. Food contamination is generally defined as foods that are spoiled or tainted because they either contain microorganisms, such as bacteria or parasites, or toxic substances that make them unfit for consumption Food contamination is caused by contaminants and they can be natural or synthetic. It can be physical, chemical, or biological, and organic contamination comes under chemical contamination, Organic acids, polyphenols and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are the major organic contaminants. CCDs, OCPs, PCBs, PCBDs, PFASs, PAHs, dioxins, and furans are the most common organic contaminants of food, and they may be present in foodstuffs of daily uses like egg, meat, fish, oil, vegetable, fruit, etc. Organic contaminants in food cause serious health effects like reproductive problems, endocrine disruption, cardiovascular disease, cancer, obesity, increased blood pressure, diabetes, neurological disorders, DNA damage, cancer, and liver injury. Different types of organic contaminants can be detected in food by extraction techniques like SOX, SLE, PLE, MAE, UAE, MSPD, LLE, SPE, SBSE, separation techniques like GC, LC, GC x GC, and detection techniques like electron capture detector, MS, HRMS, MS/MS, TOF-MS. The way to prevent organic contaminants in food is by reducing their amount in an environment so that they can be prevented
from entering into the food chain.

Introduction: Role of Organic Compounds in Food

Organic compounds are the compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and their derivatives. They are present in different foodstuffs of daily use. The most common organic compounds found in food are organic acids and polyphenols. Organic acids and their derivatives are among the most important and widely used additives in beverage, food, and feed production. Organic acids are carbon-based acids that are acidic. As a result, biotechnology is used to generate several of these acids. Acetic acid (one carboxyl group), malic acid (two carboxyl groups), and citric acid (three carboxyl groups) are all good examples, especially for beverage, food, and feed applications. Acids and their derivatives are used as acidity regulators in food and drinks to regulate and sustain a specified pH level to balance beverages and foods. Organic acids and their derivatives have antioxidant and synergistic properties. Primary antioxidants are phenolic acids like gallic acid and ferulic acid, as well as their derivatives. Synergists include ascorbic acid and citric acid, as well as their derivatives. Organic acid salts, such as gluconates and citrates, are commonly used as food firming agents. Firming agents are substances added to food during processing to maintain the food’s rigidity (mechanical stability). In the food industry, preservation is essential. They are also commonly utilized as preservatives and as basic chemicals for the synthesis of other food additives due to several advantages. Esters, for example, are the product of carboxylic acid and alcohol combinations. Organic acids’ small ester molecules are frequently used as flavors (e.g., butyl acetate or ethyl lactate) (Quitmann et al., 2014). Polyphenols are a structural class of organic substances that are recognized due to the existence of benzene rings bearing one or more hydroxyl moieties. They are mostly natural but can also be manufactured or semi-synthetic. Flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids, as well as their chemically altered or polymerized compounds, are all referred to as flavonoids. Polyphenol-rich diets have been shown to protect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, pancreatitis, gastrointestinal disorders, lung damage, and neurodegenerative illness over time. Polyphenol consumption can lead to several negative side effects. Polyphenolic phytoconstituents in drinks have been linked to harmful results., especially in people having deteriorating illness, epilepsy, thyroid disease, high blood pressure, or heart disease (Williamson, 2017).

Contamination of Food

Contamination is the strong and persistent sensation of being polluted, diseased, or threatened as a result of prolonged contact with a filthy, impure, contagious, or hazardous person, place, or thing. Fear, disgust, dirtiness, moral impurity, and disgrace are among the negative feelings that accompany the sensation of contamination. Feces, putrefying flesh, and decomposing vegetable waste are all examples of contaminants. Contamination can result from potentially hazardous agents including chemicals, pesticides, and even some foods (Rachman & therapy, 2004).

There are different kinds of contaminants:

Fig 1: Types of Contaminants

• Natural contaminants, which are naturally present in food
• Synthetic contaminants, which are purposely introduced in food. Food additives, veterinary medications, and pesticides are examples of artificially introduced chemicals.

Metal concentrations rise as a result of pollutant release into the environment, contaminating the food supply. Food and food contact surfaces might become polluted with microorganisms in the food processing sector due to contact with soil, water, fertilizers, equipment, humans, and animals. The cleanliness and cleanability of a surface are affected by the presence of particles on it. In most circumstances, stainless steel is the preferred surface in the food sector (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Food contamination is described as foods that have rotted or been polluted as a result of the presence of microorganisms such as parasites or bacteria, or poisonous chemicals that make them harmful for human usage (Hussain, 2016). Contamination of food happens when bacteria or other pathogens enter food that is not supposed to be there, rendering the food unhealthy to eat. It can also refer to foodstuffs that have spoiled due to the presence of bacteria that render them unsafe for eating. Figure 1 depicts several foods that are highly polluted. When foods get contaminated with a potentially dangerous agent, food safety is at risk. Foodstuffs like meat, dairy products, berries and cherries, potatoes, coffee, peaches, spinach, grains and beans, pears, apples, and grapes are more liable to spoilage (Sadiku et al., 2020):

Fig 2: Top Highly Contaminated Foods

Contaminants are characterized based on where they came from and how they entered into the food (Kamala & Kumar, 2018). Food contaminants can be defined as any substance detected inside food during the manufacturing process, farming methods, treatment, packing, transportation, or storage of food, or from environmental sources (Sadiku et al., 2020). A biological, chemical, or physical food contaminant can be present in food with the former being the most frequent. These pollutants can reach the supply chain (from farm to fork) in a variety of ways, making a food product unfit for ingestion (Hussain, 2016).

Food Contamination as a Global Challenge

In various documents and articles, the World Health Organization (WHO) has identified contamination of food as a worldwide issue (Kamala & Kumar, 2018; Sadiku et al., 2020). “Contamination of food in one location may endanger the health of those on the other side of the globe,” according to a statement (Kamala & Kumar, 2018). In reality, a large proportion of individuals globally will contract a waterborne or foodborne illness at one phase or another in their life cycles. As a result, of contaminated food huge numbers of people are infected, with many of them dying therefore. In this situation, ” contamination of food ” becomes a severe problem. The number of food contamination problems is large and expanding (Hussain, 2016).

Types of Food Contamination

Contamination of food is divided into three types (Sadiku et al., 2020):

• Physical Contamination
• Chemical Contamination
• Biological Contamination

Fig 3: Types of Food Contamination

Physical Contamination

When physical items enter food, this happens. Metals, glass, hair, fingernails, pests, jewelry, and dirt are all common causes of physical contamination (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Biological Contamination

When bacteria, fungi, or other harmful microorganisms contaminate food, this occurs. Food poisoning, food spoilage, and food-borne illness all occur as a result of biological contamination. Although all foods can contain diseases that are harmful to humans, some foods are more susceptible to biological contamination than others (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Chemical Contamination

Food that has been poisoned by a chemical agent is regarded as chemically contaminated food. Agrochemicals, kitchen equipment, unwashed fruits and vegetables, and food containers made of non-safe plastics are all common causes of chemical contamination. Accidents involving nuclear power plants can result in severe environmental pollution and even death (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Chemical Contaminants

As a result of pesticide residue and other pollutants in the environment found in the availability of food, contaminants from chemicals have become a hazard regarding food safety. A substantial number of contaminants emitted into the environment by fast-increasing agricultural and industrial sectors have entered into the food chain. Prevention of contamination of food is a health of the general public concern, given the proliferation of chemical pollutants in foodstuffs, and the substantial threats to one’s health they provide (Marriott et al., 2018). Organic contamination of food occurs when the organic compounds are present in abundance in the food than the required amount that may be harmful to the health of human beings. The presence of more than the required number of organic compounds causes different diseases in human life and put their life in danger.

Sources of Food Contamination

Soil, sewage, live animals, external surfaces, and the internal organs of meat animals can all contaminate raw materials. Diseased animals are another source of contamination in animal meals, though developments in health care have practically eradicated this source. Contamination from chemical sources can occur when chemical supplies are accidentally mixed with foods. Additional microbiological or chemical contamination can be caused by substances. The sources involved in the food contamination processes include (Sadiku et al., 2020):

Fig 4: Sources of Food Contamination

Organic Contaminants in Food and their Sources

A subgroup of toxic organic substances, largely of anthropogenic origin, that are typically classed as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) has received a lot of attention in recent decades. These are a form of a long- lasting carbon-containing organic compound, bioaccumulative, and can travel long distances. POPs present in the environment fall into three categories (Guo et al., 2019):

Fig 5: Types of POPs (Guo et al., 2019)

Common Classes of POPs in Food

Chlorodibenzo-P- Dioxin (CDD)

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzo-p- dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (D/Fs), as well as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). All three (D/Fs, PCBs, or D/Fs) are lipophilic, have toxicity, and are present in our supply of food (Archer & Jenkins, 2017). Several incidences of high dioxin levels in food items have been reported in recent years as a result of the usage of infected animal feed components (Huwe, Smith, & Chemistry, 2005). Dioxin toxicity in humans is proportional to the amount deposited in the body over a lifetime. Dermal impacts such as chloracne are the acute health consequences on those who have been exposed to high doses of dioxins. Other major concerns include the danger of cancer, as well as reproductive and developmental impacts based on animal studies (Durand et al., 2008).

Organochlorine Pesticide (OCPs)

contact with OCP leftovers or OCP-contaminated diets, they may become infected. Vegetables can be contaminated via root absorption through contaminated sites or prolonged exposure to OCPs (Guo et al., 2019).

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs)

Inhalation, skin contact, and the ingestion of contaminated food could all expose humans to PCB/BDE. The direct pathway for BDE/PCB deposition in the body of humans is through dietary intake. Food consumption, primarily fish, meat, and dairy products, accounts for about 90% of the body burden of PCB. Despite the low content of PCBs in foods like vegetables and rice, they should be considered a possible and substantial source of PCB consumption due to the sheer amount ingested (Guo et al., 2019).

Dioxin and Furan

Many industrial operations having chemical substances that contain chlorine in them produce PCDF and PCDD, which are well-known by- products. Dioxins/furans are primarily found in foods that contain more fatty content like dairy products, fish, and meat (Guo et al., 2019). Incremation of wastes from hospitals and open burning are common in underdeveloped countries, and combustion of waste is an important contributor of dioxins and furans. s in these countries (Fiedler, 2007). As a result, large quantities of dioxins/furans have been discovered in the milk and flesh of animals living near incineration plants (Adamse et al., 2017).

Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) and PAHs

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of compounds made up of two or more two benzenoid rings that are found in abundance (Guo et al., 2019). Diet is the most common source of human exposure to PAH in nonsmokers, accounting for more than 70% of overall exposure (Martorell et al., 2010). Ingestion-based exposure estimations are influenced by a variety of factors include (Nwaneshiudu et al., 2007):

• types and quantities of food consumed
• frequency of consumption
• addition and loss of food contaminants during preparation and processing (e.g. smoked foods)
• seasonal changes causing variations in the contaminant content in foods.

The amount consumed in the diet is mostly determined by the method of preparation as well as the risk of food contamination resulting from packing materials and manufacturing (Martorell et al., 2010). The main health concern about PAH is that some of them are highly carcinogenic in laboratory animals, as well as being implicated in various types of human cancers, primarily breast, lung, and colon cancers, due to metabolic activation of dioepoxides in mammalian cells, which causes errors in DNA replication and mutation, initiating the carcinogenic process. Food preparation and handling practices can introduce PAHs into the food (Marriott et al., 2018). According to a dietary survey conducted in the UK, cereals and oils/fats account for a significant portion of PAH intake (Dennis et al., 1983). This type of PAH contamination happens most commonly in technological processes when food is exposed to combustion products, such as direct fire drying (Dennis et al., 1991).

Fig 6: Common Classes of POPs in Food

Sources of Organic Contaminants in Food

Processing, packing, transportation, and storage are all common processes in the food preparation process. Each stage could be a possible POPs’ point of entry. POPs have the potential to contaminate food in a variety of ways. This type of PAH contamination happens most commonly in technological processes when food is exposed to combustion products, such as direct fire drying (Dennis et al., 1991). Raw materials, for example, may include POPs that have been transferred from the outside environment. Because POPs have a high resistance to decay, they can last for a long time in the environment. POP contamination of food and feed sources is largely due to previously released POPs in the environment. POPs can be successfully transmitted from the atmosphere to the crop, and eventually to foodstuff. Activities involving preparing food, during which POPs may be purposely added by humans, are another source of POPs. Some of the foodstuffs that are contaminated with POPs are: (Durand et al., 2008).

Fig 7: POPs in Food Stuffs

POPs are not easily chemical, biological, and photolytic degradable in the environment. As a result, POPs can persist for a longer duration in the atmosphere after they’ve been emitted. Some POPs have a very long half- life of the year or even a decade, allowing them to remain the part of ecosystem until animals and plants consume them. POPs accumulate in the body of organisms’ fatty tissue and hence as they travel through the atmosphere, they get more condensed. The tight connection between carbon and chlorine/bromine/fluorine in the majority of POPs makes them not easily degradable through environmental degradation which includes chemical, biological, and photolytic reactions. POPs which do not contain halogens are likewise persistent due to their stable chemical structures. As a result, POPs can persist in the atmosphere for a longer duration after being emitted. Some POPs have a half-life of a year or decade, allowing them to persist in the surroundings until animals or plants consume them. POPs can bio-accumulate in alive animals’ adipose tissues and hence grow effectively as they go up the food web. These are the small group of compounds that are long-lasting, bioaccumulative, and poisonous (PBTs) that may travel long distances (Rosenfeld & Feng, 2011). Because of these characteristics, animals, and humans all over the globe can face exposure to POPs for longer periods (Marriott et al., 2018). The ingestion of contaminated food, particularly animal-derived food, accounts for more than 90% of human exposure to POPs (Rodríguez-Hernández et al., 2015). POPs are primarily ingested through fish (Fair et al., 2018). POPs have been utilized and released into the environment as a result of a variety of human activities, including those in the industrial and agricultural sectors. POPs released into the environment can pollute livestock, crops, fisheries, and water use for drinking purposes, putting human health at risk. Pesticides like dieldrin and DDT for example, have been routinely employed in crop production in recent decades to boost crop output and eradicate undesired pests. The use of OCPs, on the other hand, can easily introduce toxins into water, crops, and wildlife. Pesticide residue is one of the most regularly identified dietary pollutants, according to studies (Schafer et al., 2002).

Health Effects of Organic Contaminants

POPs pose a significant danger to people’s health because of their bioaccumulation in human adipose tissue and their long-term properties. Exposure to such substances has been linked to endocrine disruption, reproductive issues, cancer, cardiovascular disease, overweight, and diabetic problems, among other major health issues. POP consumption in pregnancy is harmful not only to the mother but also to the babies. Prenatal exposure to POPs has been linked to birth weight loss (Cabrera-Rodríguez et al., 2019; Guo et al., 2014), child obesity, high BP (Vafeiadi et al., 2015), and endocrine disruption (Hertz‐Picciotto et al., 2008; Papadopoulou et al., 2013). POPs have the following health risks as shown in the figure (Guo et al., 2019):

Fig 8: Health hazards associated with POPs in food.

Cancers and Endocrine Disruption

The regulation of hormones that manage various bodily activities is controlled by the endocrine system. There has been strong evidence in the last 2 – 3 decades indicating several POPs were likely to cause endocrine disturbance (Li et al., 2008). POPs’ endocrine-disturbance effects do have the potential to damage the sexual, neurologic, and immunity, raising the hormone-dependent threat of malignancies and interfering with differences in sexuality, growth, and development (Sanderson, 2006). POP- contaminated food has been linked to malignancies and hypospadias in fetal and infant men, this also results in endometriosis, cystic ovaries, and endometriosis in females (Li et al., 2006). Endocrine disruptors include DDT, dieldrin, toxaphene, chlordane, mirex, endosulfan, HCB, and other OCPs (Guo et al., 2019).

Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases

In response to the negative consequences of POPs on the hormonal system, it has been indicated that they can cause heart disease (Ljunggren et al., 2014) and metabolism problems like diabetes and obesity (Færch et al., 2012). According to several recent researches, increased POP consumption can cause diabetes (Zong et al., 2018). POP levels in the blood were shown to be high in diabetic and prediabetic people (Færch et al., 2012). PFOA, dioxin, and DDT exposure in pregnant women cause fatness in infants (Zong et al., 2018). Individuals with high levels of OCP, PCB, and PBDE in their bodies were found to have a higher weight gain (Lee et al., 2011).

Detection Methods of Organic Contaminants

The past few decades have seen the advancement of techniques for evaluating POPs in diverse food matrices. POP identification in foodstuffs needs a multi-step approach that includes sample processing, sensitive and selective experimental methods, and quantity improvement and quality control (Guo et al., 2019). When evaluating food, sample preprocessing is required to reduce the matrices effect because a poor detection limit is needed for POP detection. pH adjustment, filtration, clean-up, extraction, and enriching techniques are all part of the sample preparation process for detecting POPs in food (Dimpe & Nomngongo, 2016). Solid-phase extraction, supercritical fluid, microwave-assisted extraction, solid-phase microextraction, liquid–phase micro-extraction, liquid–liquid extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, and stir bar sorptive extraction are some of the different techniques of sample formation have been discussed (Guo et al., 2019; Ochiai et al., 2011). Highlights of the most prevalent analytical technique for identifying POPs in various dietary matrices are as follows:

Fig 9: Detection Methods of Organic Contaminants

Extraction Methods

Liquid–Liquid Extraction (LLE)

The use of liquid–liquid extract (LLE) in traditional techniques for the detection of POPs in milk/water, which include PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and OCPs (Chung & Chen, 2011), has been commonly recognized. LLE differentiates compounds depending on how they dissolve in two immiscible liquid phases, generally water and an organic solvent. As a result, huge volumes of organic solvents are needed (Ochiai et al., 2011). An improved LLE approach, dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction, was created to reduce solvent usage. Organic analytes (OCPs, PAHs, PCBs, and PBDEs) are extracted from specimens of water using dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction (Zgoła-Grześkowiak & Grześkowiak, 2011). Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction is becoming increasingly popular in separating science because it is cheap and inexpensive (Guo et al., 2019).

Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE)

Solid-phase extraction can be another approach for decreasing the amount of solvent in a liquid sample. When evaluating organic chemicals for water and wastewater, the US EPA has employed them as an alternative to LLE (Andrade et al., 2016). Chemicals in a liquid mixture are separated by solid-phase extraction depending upon various preferences of an analyte plus interferences for the solid phase (sorbent). PFOS and PFOA have been extracted from water samples using this method (Tang, 2013). Solid-phase extraction, when compared to standard LLE, saves a lot of money on solvent and is very easy to use. Moreover, there are certain drawbacks to conventional solid-phase extraction, like analyte loss during the pre-concentration stage and sorbent bed blockage. To lessen sample loss and contaminants, solid-phase micro-extraction and stir bar extraction have developed in recent years. The stir bar extraction has a polar chemical constraint, whereas following sample extraction, a clean-up step is required for solid phase microextraction. PBDEs, OCPs, PCBs, and in-water samples have been extracted using both techniques (Ochiai et al., 2011).

Soxhlet Extraction (SE)

Pressured liquid extraction, Soxhlet extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, ultrasonic-assisted, and matrix solid-phase dispersion extraction are all commonly detected extraction procedures. The traditional Soxhlet extraction technique is indeed widely used for a variety of materials and analytes, including dioxins/furans and dioxin-like PCBs in foodstuffs (Chung & Chen, 2011). Moreover, the extraction method takes a long time and consumes a lot of solvent. Furthermore, the requirement for evaporative cooling following sample extraction precludes the use of heat-sensitive substances that may deteriorate caused to long-term heating (Guo et al., 2019).

Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)

Pressurized liquid extraction uses increased temperature and pressure to extract more components from sample matrices. Using pressured liquid extraction, PAHs, PCBs, PCDFs, and PCDDs have been extracted from fatty foods like eggs, fish, as well as meat (Carabias-Martínez et al., 2005).

Microwave-Assisted Extraction

The solvent is heated using microwaves and enhances its absorption into the sample matrix in microwave-assisted extraction. OCPs have been extracted from food using this method (Chung & Chen, 2011). This extraction process is beneficial as it reduces the timing of the process, less solvent usage, and enhances the efficiency of the process. Although it has restrictions like costly equipment, a volatile solvent, and a hygienic operation (Guo et al., 2019).

Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction

Ultrasonic-assisted extraction is an easy and expensive method of reducing thermal performance using ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic-assisted extraction was used to identify OCPs and PAHs in foods (Tadeo et al., 2010).

Supercritical Fluid Extraction

A mixture of supercritical fluid and analytes is used to recover analytes employing supercritical fluid as the extracting solvent. Carbon dioxide is the most widely used supercritical fluid. OCPs have been extracted from oil, meat, eggs, and butter using this approach (Fiddleret al., 1999).

Drawbacks of Extraction Methods

Because certain unwanted organic molecules are recovered with POPs, all of these extraction procedures have post-extraction cleaning problems. The cleansing phase removes any interference materials from the extract before it is suitable for instrument investigation. Due to the time- consuming nature of traditional purification techniques, automated cleaning systems have been developed. However, Traditional cleaning systems are popular due to the high cost of automated purification systems (Kedikoglou et al., 2018).

Separation and Detection Methods

The most extensively used technology for POP measurement in food and environmental materials is mass spectrometry (MS) combined with chromatography (Portoles et al., 2016).

Gas Chromatography (GC)

One of the most widely employed chromatographic processes is gas chromatography (GC). The heating temperatures of the components and their contact with the solid phase of a column influence GC isolation. The majority of POPs have moderate volatility, having polarity ranging from mild to non-polar. Due to their physiochemical characteristics, many of these compounds are adapted to be analyzed through GC–MS, except compounds that are about PFAS, whose measuring is done with the help of the LC–MS/MS approach. But no one column is capable of separating every PCB and dioxin/furan element. Complete two-dimensional GC was introduced to overcome this problem. When two columns are carried through each other, there are two points of difference due to distinct physical and chemical characteristics. The 2D GC can greatly enhance selection (capacity of peak) and sensitivities when compared to single columns (Guo et al., 2019).

Electron Capture Detector

Electron capture detection is a limited detection that is commonly employed to identify PCBs and OCPs in various foods (Sharma et al., 2014). Electron capture negative chemical ionizing is a softer ionizing technique that is used to identify POPs. The electrons capturing negative ionizing technique and the electron ionization method are used to analyze PCB and PBDEs utilizing GC–MS (Guo et al., 2019).

High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HRMS)

GC in combination with ¹³C-labeled isotopic dilution high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) is regarded as a gold reference for the identification of some POPs like dioxins and furans (Garcia-Bermejo et al., 2015). Measurement is accurate with straight 13C-labeled isotopic dilution. Other MS equipment, like time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF–MS), can be used in place of ¹³C-labeled isotope dilution HRMS because of the equipment’s high price and the requirement for expert workers (Guo et al., 2019).

GC×GC TOF–MS

Dioxins and PCBs have been successfully detected in food using GC×GC TOF–MS. The selectivity of GC×GC TOF–MS might be enhanced by using a simultaneous approach (MS/MS) or enhancing chromatographic separation (Garcia-Bermejo et al., 2015). To identify the POPs in foodstuff and feed additives samples like fish and vegetable oil, recent investigations have demonstrated that GC combined with triple- quadrupole simultaneous MS performed similarly to GC-HRMS (Focant et al., 2005).

Ways to Control Organic Contamination in Food

To protect the population against POPs, and to prevent organic pollutants from entering the food supply, regulatory systems must be developed (Guo et al., 2019). It can be reduced by preventing POPs from entering the food supply by reducing them in the environment.

Monitor Pops in Food

Because of POPs’ durability and lengthy portability, laws have been passed at both regional and international levels to defend public health and the environment. The Basel Convention on a Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Removal, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Process for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Commerce, and the Stockholm Convention on restricting the use manufacturing of POPs are all trade agreements on handling POPs and other dangerous chemicals (Matthies et al., 2016). In addition to such rules, worldwide organizations developed monitoring systems to check POP levels in foodstuffs to safeguard the population from unsafe food to ensure food safety. Because compounds having nature similar to dioxins are some of the most dangerous pollutants, many groups belonging to government and non-government have identified an acceptable level of PCDD/Fs and PCB ingestion (Leeuwen et al., 2000; Vigh et al., 2013; Vogt et al., 2012). Similar regulations are in place for some PFOAs and PAHs as well. Both international and national monitor schemes are designed to ensure that POP contamination in food is less than the dangerous level. Feed supply management is also essential for preventing POPs from entering the food web (Guo et al., 2019).

Methods of Removal of Organic Contaminants

Another strategy for reducing the danger of POP contamination in food is to create technologies for removing POPs from the environment. It would then lessen the risk of contamination in food. Incineration, solvent extraction, gas-phase chemical reduction, alkali metal reduction, and landfilling are examples of traditional methods (Ashraf, 2017). Traditional approaches, on the other hand, have been ineffective in eliminating POPs. Furthermore, these techniques are costly or may lead to the production of more toxic compounds during the decomposition process. Bioremediation is an alternative method for biodegrading contaminants in an environmentally beneficial manner using microorganisms. Bioremediation methods for POPs have been studied.

Dietary Make-Up

Individual intake of POPs also is influenced by nutritional makeup. Because of POPs’ fat solubility, high-fat items like animal food, milk, and its components are more susceptible to POP contamination as compared to other products. Reduced consumption of meat, dairy, and fish, as well as choosing the lowest fat option, are two dietary options for reducing POP exposure (Vogt et al., 2012). Other sources of food contaminated with POP, such as the packaging of food and preparation procedures must also be monitored. The introduction of pollutants from food that is processed can be minimized via the usage of safe storage solutions such as coating and edible films, as well as techniques of processing such as indirect heating and decontaminated oil (Guo et al., 2019).

Conclusion

Organic compounds are present in foodstuffs of daily life usage like meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, etc. However, due to different human or natural activities, their concentration in food has been increased and causes food contamination. Food contamination is any undesirable change in the food that may cause unpleasant effects on human beings and can cause health problems for them. So organic compounds can act as organic contaminants if they exceed a certain limit and can cause serious health problems. The sources of organic contaminants can be natural or synthetic. Polyphenols, organic acids, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are among the major classes of organic contaminants. These contaminants cause serious health problems in humans like obesity, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, endocrine disorders, liver injury, etc. and thus disturb the normal functionality of the human body. Among the above-mentioned classes, CCDs, OCPs, PCBs, PCBDs, PFASs, PAHs, dioxins and furans are the most common organic contaminants of food, and they may be present in foodstuffs of daily uses like eggs, meat, fish, oil, vegetable, fruit, etc. These organic contaminants in food can be detected by various techniques like SOX, SLE, PLE, MAE, UAE, MSPD, LLE, SPE, SBSE, GC, LC, GC x GC, electron capture detector, MS, HRMS, MS/MS, TOF-MS. Organic contaminants can be controlled by limiting the usage of organic compounds in daily life or removing them from the environment by using various techniques including gas-phase chemical reduction, solvent extraction, alkali metal reduction, landfilling, incineration, and preventing them from becoming part of the food chain.

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Previous Post: Antioxidant Properties of Coconut Water on Human Health to Reduce the Oxidative Stress

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Abstract

Antioxidant Properties of Coconut Water on Human Health to Reduce the Oxidative Stress. Coconut water is an ancient tropical drink which represents the potential nutritional and therapeutics values. Coconut water is a natural sterile solution which consists of various active pharmacological components including, lipids, proteins, sugars and minerals like potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus iron and copper. Consumption of either tender of mature form coconut water remarkably reduces the hyperlipidemia in cholesterol fed rats. Coconut water also helps to minimize the heart failure, diabetic effects, kidney stones. Coconut water is a good source to produce the beneficial medicinal effects against various diseases. Coconut water gives several pharmacological benefits like antioxidants, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory/analgesic and cardioprotective effects. This review explains several uses and health benefits of coconut water.  

Keywords: Oxidative stress, Chemical composition, Antioxidant properties, Health benifits

Introduction

Staying hydrate is most important a man can do for his health. Staying hydrated can also help to intercept headache, constipation, lubricant the joints, minimize damage of kidney oxygen delivery in body and support physical performance. A human body consists of 60% water while the recommended water is 237 mL (8-ounce) glasses od water/day with (8×8 rule). Water is essential for the body cells and organs to function properly. Different types of water play an important role in our daily life such as normal gallon water, cucumber water, coconut water.

Figure 1: Coconut water in its mature stage of coconut

Coconut water is the transparent liquid present in the young coconuts which helps in oral hydration, intestinal flu, cholera and treatment of childhood symptoms. The fresh coconut water fascinates with rich contents and fresh taste by improving the accessibility and marketability of coconut water. Coconut water is also identified as isotonic beverage due to the balanced sodium electrolytes which helps to restore the lose of electrolytes by urinary pathway and skin.

Chemical Composition of Coconut Water

Primarily, the coconut water is composed of sugars (fructose, disaccharides, aldohexose), lipids (0.01%), water (94%) and proteins 0.02%). Other contents like minerals, metallic elements, manganese and calcium are also present in minute amounts in coconut water. Coconut water is composed of phytohormones like cytokinin, auxins, electrolyte minerals like calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, copper, phosphorus and sodium, sugars and vitamins. The phytohormones are organic compounds which play an important role as regulators in plant growth in developmental process.

Table 1: Nutrients composition of coconut water.

Applications and Health Benefits of Coconut Water

1. Antioxidants Properties

Access of unstable free radicals in the body during the metabolism process results in oxidative stress which in return increases the risks of chronic diseases. Coconut water contains a considerable number of antioxidants which helps to reduce the effects of chronic diseases. A study on the insulin resistant rats reveals remarkable reduction the oxidative stress, blood pressure, triglycerides and insulin levels when treated with the coconut water in 2012.

2. Antidiabetic Properties

Coconut water can help to reduce the blood sugar levels by improving the health conditions in human being. A study reveled in 2015, that the diabetic rats treated with coconut water showed the better maintenance of blood sugar level in comparison with the control group. It was also found that the rats treated with coconut water showed the lower level of hemoglobin (A1c) level which indicates the better control on long term blood sugar level.

3. Anti-inflammatory/analgesic Property

Coconut water also showed the anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting the prostaglandin activity which results in the reduction of inflammation. Other studies also revealed that the coconut water showed the analgesic activity by the thermal sensation of pain in hot plate and immersion test in which rats fed with coconut water was observed with the reduced pain sensation which confirms that the coconut water also exhibits the analgesic properties.

4. Application of Coconut Water in Kidney Stones

Kidney stone can be avoided by the intake of enough flued in the form of pure gallon water or the coconut water. But studies have suggested that the coconut water is proved to be the better choice to avoid kidney stone. Kidney stone formed when oxalate, calcium and other compounds form crystals in urine which results in kidney stone. A study revealed that rats with kidney stone when treated with coconut water prevented the crystals to stick to the kidney or other parts of urinary tract.

5. Cardioprotective Effects of Coconut Water

The epidemiological studies indicates that remarkable digress of HDL can cause cardiovascular illness. A study revealed that coconut water may also assist in the reduction of hearts diseases in rats fed with 4 ml/100g of body weight for 45 days. The rats fed with coconut water showed a decreases level of triglyceride level and cholesterol which is a high dose. But a human being should consume 91 ounce (2.7 liters)/50 pounds (68 kg body weight) of coconut water to avoid the heart diseases.

Conclusion

Coconut water is considered to be a different type of juice due to its low acidity level, isotonic solution composition and low sugar contents. Coconut trees are wide distributed due to their pharmacological applications. The antioxidant, cardioprotective, antidiabetic properties and effects in kidney stones are due to the high intake of coconut fruit and water. Although coconut water is a natural beverage, delicious and filled with electrolytes which helps in the maintenance of human health by lowering the risks of kidney stone, heart failure, moderate blood sugar level by keeping the hydrated and fresh. However, the up-to dated research is also encouraged but more studies need to be done in future about the coconut water and its benefits.

References

1. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/coconut-water-benefits#TOC_TITLE_HDR_10.
2. Shrimanker, I., & Bhattarai, S. (2019). Electrolytes.
3. Zulaikhah, S. T. (2019). Health benefits of tender coconut water (TCW). International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 10(2), 474-480.
4. Tuyekar, S. N., Tawade, B. S., Singh, K. S., Wagh, V. S., Vidhate, P. K., Yevale, R. P., … & Kale, M. (2021). An overview on coconut water: As a multipurpose nutrition. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res, 68(2), 63-70.
5. Bhagya, D., Prema, L., & Rajamohan, T. (2012). Therapeutic effects of tender coconut water on oxidative stress in fructose fed insulin resistant hypertensive rats. Asian Pacific journal of tropical medicine, 5(4), 270-276.
6. Pinto, I. F., Silva, R. P., Filho, A. D. B. C., Dantas, L. S., Bispo, V. S., Matos, I. A., … & Matos, H. R. (2015). Study of antiglycation, hypoglycemic, and nephroprotective activities of the green dwarf variety coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Medicinal Food, 18(7), 802-809.
7. Pinto, I. F., Silva, R. P., Filho, A. D. B. C., Dantas, L. S., Bispo, V. S., Matos, I. A., … & Matos, H. R. (2015). Study of antiglycation, hypoglycemic, and nephroprotective activities of the green dwarf variety coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Medicinal Food, 18(7), 802-809.

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RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

Recombinant DNA technology was invented by the remarkable work of Stanley N. Cohen, Herbert W. Boyer, and Paul Berg. This technique is primarily used to modify the phenotype of host (organism), when a genetically modified vector incorporates into the genome of an organism

Recombinant DNA has a vast range of use in every aspect of life. It has revolutionized our life by developing such products that offer various opportunities for betterment and innovations that lead to dramatic changes.

Moreover, to gene therapy scientists are moving towards regeneration. It may be of any organ or any tissue.

Regenerative therapy comes up as a remarkable and unique field that consorts biology, robotics, medicine chemistry, computer science, engineering, genetics and many other fields for the acquisition of solutions to medical problems that made the human life and health arduous.

On invasion of any disease or due to any injury, naturally our body has innate immunity that helps our body to heal and defend. What if we help the body to accelerate the healing process? Amalgam approaches can strengthen the body’s natural healing process or can endorse the function of damaged organ.

By words regenerative medicine can be defined as:

“It is the process of regenerating cell, tissues or any organs of human to bring back their original function.”

This powerful field “regenerative therapy” helps to recover structure and functionality of damaged organs and tissues. One of the aims of this therapy is to provide solutions for the organs that are completely damaged.

Advancement in recombinant technology has made it more practicable for doctors to provide expedient cures. For treatment many methods are used that can help the body to heal its very own tissues. One of these techniques is cartilage regeneration. Here we choose to review only cartilage regeneration as there are many strategies and ways to regenerate many tissues and organs.

CARTILAGE

Cartilage is connective tissues with flexibility but less flexible than muscles. It helps to keep the joints movement easy through the coat on bone surfaces.

In adulthood cartilage regenerative ability is zero so if it injured it’s gone permanently and cannot be regrow or repaired. Some surgical procedures can restore cartilage to some extent but cannot bring back to normal condition.

In 1743 Hunter quoted about the cartilage repair

From Hippocrates down to the present age, we shall find that an ulcerating cartilage is found to be a very troublesome disease……and that, when destroyed, it is never recovered.’

Over the previous couple of decades, deoxyribonucleic acid techniques have been verified to be terribly powerful tools for the event of novel protein-based biomaterials that are able to self-assemble into completely different structures, like hydrogels.

 There are several ways that may be wont to deliver exogenous cDNAs for the treatment of pathologic or broken gristle. For a fortunate approach, many factors got to be taken into consideration, as well as the extent of gristle pathology, illness processes, and therefore the biological activity of the cistron product. A key element for any cistron medical care application may be a vector that expeditiously delivers the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of interest to the target cell and allows transgene expression of an acceptable level and length to have an effect on the specified biological response. What is more, associate understanding of the natural behavior of the target cell, like its half-life, rate of division, and infectability with the vector are essential to the effectiveness of the procedure. Ways for cistron transfer to osteochondral defects. (a) Vector-seeded artificial matrices. A recombinant vector is adsorbate porous matrix that’s then surgically deep-seated into an osteochondral defect. Bone marrow cells infiltrate the matrix, acquire the transgene and regionally specific chondrogenic factors that stimulate MSCs toward improved repair. (b) Vector seeded bone marrow clot. Contemporary aspirate from the bone marrow is quickly mixed with a recombinant vector, permitting interaction with the cells throughout. The mixture is then allowed to coagulate for 15–30 min. straight off after, the clot containing the genetically changed bone marrow cells is deep-seated into the defect wherever the chondrogenic transgene product area unit regionally synthesized and secreted. Cells gift within the clot further as infiltrating cells area unit then stirred toward improved gristle repair. (c) Cell-seeded bone marrow clot. As an alternative, MSCs is isolated from the bone marrow aspirate, dilated and genetically changed ex vivo, and so seeded into a contemporary aspirate for implantation within the succeeding coagulate.

RECOMBINANT BIOMATERIALS FOR CARTILAGE REGENERATION

Biomaterials with an elastic modulus in the range of 1–10 kPa are of widespread interest, as many native tissues also have moduli in this range. The hydrogels developed to repair joint cartilage are more effective when their stress relaxation behavior matches with the native tissue because such behavior affects load transfer and nutrient transport. Up to 80% of articular cartilage wet weight consists of water. To replicate this environment, hydrogels have become a popular option for cartilage regeneration in situ and cartilage engineering in vitro.

The purpose of these types of scaffolds is not only to provide support for cell attachment and spreading but also to have mechanical stability at the defect site although, it is important to take into account that the aim of these scaffolds is not to substitute for the tissue but to improve cartilage regeneration in order to obtain a mature tissue.

Materials that enhance bone and cartilage regeneration promise to be valuable in both research and clinical applications and the use of recombinant DNA technology has enabled the creation of scaffolds with new levels of bio functionality.

Some of the research that has been done regarding cartilage regeneration is briefly described in the table below.

COMMERCIALIZATION OF REGENERATIVE MEDICINE FOR CARTILAGE REGENERATION

There are numbers of novel research about cartilage regeneration but the products that are FDA-approved are still limited in number.

Under the section of 351 or 361 of the Public Health Service Act drugs that are used in cartilage regeneration are classified. They are classified as:

• Devices: include scaffolds and injectable drugs
• Drug and Biologics: include stem cell related technologies and biomaterial constructed through protein molecules and growth factors.

Some of the products approved by FDA are mentioned below:

CARTILAGE REGENERATION CENTER

The treatment of cartilage injuries remains one of the most difficult challenges in medicine. Name of some renowned center are listed below:

FUTURE PROSPECTS

Cartilage regeneration takes 20 years to achieve dignitary place, and current treatments try to make it possible that modified cartilage tissues to come close to natural ones. It should be kept in mind that biotechnology is an interdisciplinary subject that provides new techniques and concepts. Related to cartilage regeneration, modern trend deals with the potential of biotechnology in the textile industry. It broadens the utilization of present-day fabrics. Fabrics are made from innovative materials that have the ability to regenerate cartilage. This technique would have many beneficial outcomes for patients. Patients would not undergo surgical treatment or any specific therapy they can use in their daily life without any hesitation, moreover it does not cause morbidity. Advancement in material designing will boost our capability to reconstruct cartilage with great functionality. Although there are some challenges in a way, research overcomes those challenges through their novel ideas and hope for betterment in the field of cartilage regeneration.

REFERENCES

1. Griffiths, A. J.F. (2020, October 14). recombinant DNA. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/recombinant-DNA-technology
2. Watson, James D. (2007). Recombinant DNA: Genes and Genomes: A Short Course. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-2866-5.
3. Introducing Recombinant DNA into Host Cells,(2021,July20).
4. Padmanabhan S, Banerjee S, Mandi N. Screening of Bacterial Recombinants: Strategies and Preventing False Positives. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/22140
5. Sambrook J, Fritsch E, Maniatis T. 1989. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 1. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
6.  Screening for Recombinants, Principles and Processes of Biotechnology: https://www.brainkart.com/article/Screening-for-Recombinants_38243/
7.  MITOPENCOURSEWARE:RecombinantDNA :  https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/biology/7-01sc-fundamentals-of-biology-fall-2011/recombinant-dna/
8. Watson, James D. (2007). Recombinant DNA: Genes and Genomes: A Short Course. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-2866-5.
9. Khan, S., Ullah, M. W., Siddique, R., Nabi, G., Manan, S., Yousaf, M., & Hou, H. (2016). Role of Recombinant DNA Technology to Improve Life. International journal of genomics, 2016, 2405954. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2405954
10.  Sirinibaskumar Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology: 3 Applications, https://www.biologydiscussion.com/dna/recombinant-dna-technology/applications-of-recombinant-dna-technology-3-applications/15650
11. Ha, C. W., Lee, K. H., Lee, B. S., Park, S. H., Cho, J. J., Kim, T. W., … & Lee, M. C. (2012, September). Efficacy of Tissuegene-C (TG-C), a cell mediated gene therapy, in patients with osteoarthritis: a phase IIa clinical study. In journal of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (vol. 6, pp. 287-287). 111 river st, hoboken 07030-5774, nj usa: wiley-blackwell.

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Content Number: 01
Author Name: Sana Noor
Author I’d: SBPWNC – A01
Educational Institution: Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan
Content Title: Geopolymeric membrane and its application in wastewater treatment

An overview on Geopolymeric membrane in waste water treatment

This content address introduction of geopolymer, geopolymeric membrane, synthesis and its application. One of the most significant environmental issues of the twenty-first century is a lack of drinking water, which has been driven by global climate change and population expansion. As a result, wetlands that are naturally occurring are disappearing, billions of people continue to live in nations facing water emergencies, and they lack access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene. However, it is believed that between 50 and 80 percent of effluent is released untreated. Wastewater is viewed as a dependable alternative water supply and a way to address the water issue in the face of rising demand. Sixty percent of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals depend on effective water management and wastewater treatment. There are mainly three stages

Separation, biological treatment, and purification of wastewater treatment that can be used constantly. Membrane technology is only the one that can be used as a solution in all three stages. The first stage involves the separation of bacteria, oil, fat, and suspended solids, followed by the purification process using micro membranes and the final stage using ultrafiltration or reverse osmosis membranes.

Membranes can be categorized as either organic or inorganic depending on the materials employed in their production. Each and every membrane has some advantages and disadvantages in terms of performance, stability, and synthesis methods. Geopolymers are inorganic substances that are beginning to be considered as potential inorganic membrane building materials.

Introduction to geopolymer

Geopolymer is an alternate form of the traditional Portland cement, which is more ecofriendly to the environment. It is an inorganic synthetic polymers forming a long network of SiO₄ and AlO₄.  It is estimated that its emit 0.1 to 0.5 billion tons of CO₂ per year to the environment.  

Formation

The process through which geopolymer is formed is known as Geopolymerization, in which alumino- silicate materials are dissolved in an alkali activator solution at room temperature they form a three dimensional network of silico-aluminate.

Role of alkali activator

In geopolymerization alkali activator play an important role. Highest dissolution rate of Si⁺⁴ and Al⁺³ is reported as 10 M NaOH.

 (a) Geopolymer precursor. (b) Geopolymer backbone.

Geopolymer membrane

Geopolymer membrane play significant role in the effectiveness and sustainability of wastewater treatment.

Improved performance Characteristics

Sustainability to the environment

As compared to conventional material, manufacturing of Geopolymer membrane are usually uses low energy and produces fewer carbon emissions. This is consistent with the circular economy’s tenets, which call for recycling waste materials into useful goods.

Porosity and filtration efficiency

Heavy metals and organic pollutants may be effectively filtered out thanks to the porous nature of Geopolymers. Their filtering capacities can be further enhanced by making changes to increase porosity.

Mechanical and chemical stability

The exceptional mechanical strength and chemical resistance of geopolymer membranes are essential for withstanding the severe conditions frequently present in wastewater treatment settings.

Role of GPM in wastewater treatment

Heavy metal removal

Heavy metals from wastewater may be effectively adsorbed by geopolymer membranes, resolving serious environmental issues associated with industrial contamination. They can be used to cleanse polluted water sources because of their capacity to bind metal ions selectively.

Membrane bioreactors

Advanced membrane-based bioreactors are the result of innovations like adding photocatalysts to geopolymer membranes. These systems improve overall treatment efficacy by filtering and degrading contaminants.

Filtration technologies

Numerous filtration technologies, such as microfiltration and ultrafiltration systems, can used geopolymer. Because of their versatility, wastewater treatment technologies can be connected with existing infrastructure, increasing their versatility.

Impact of Pore size of GPM

The effectiveness of geopolymer membranes to filter out impurities is directly impacted by their porosity. Greater permeability, made possible by higher porosity, permits water to flow through while holding onto larger contaminants and suspended particulates. This feature improves the membrane’s ability to remove impurities from water, which is crucial for efficient wastewater treatment.

Adsorption capacity

If membrane is porous it will provide more surface area for absorbing heavy metals and pollutants from wastewater. Researchers reported that porous GPM can meaningfully improve adsorption of different ions like ammonium ion, copper, nickel cadmium etc. due of this characteristic, geopolymer membranes work especially well in applications where harmful complexes need to be removed.

Anti-fouling properties

Geopolymer membrane design and modification may be helpful in reducing fouling, a common issue in membrane technology that eventually results in decreased performance. Researchers can develop membranes that prevent contaminants from building up on their surfaces and maintain greater operational efficiency by maximizing pore size and distribution.

Manufacturing techniques

Gel-casting technique

This technique combines surfactants with a foaming ingredient, like hydrogen peroxide. By maximizing the slurry conditions, the gelcasting technique enables the controlled creation of high-porosity geopolymer foams with pore size ranging from 67% to 86%. In addition to increasing porosity, this method customizes the membranes’ mechanical characteristics, which qualifies them for use in wastewater treatment applications.

Pore-forming technique

This method involves adding chemical foaming agents immediately to the geopolymer mixture. During the curing process, the foaming agents produce gas, which causes pores in the geopolymer matrix. This process has the benefit of creating ultra-macroporous structures, which can greatly enhance wastewater pollutants’ filtration and adsorption capabilities.

Composite forming method

The mechanical strength and porosity of geopolymer membranes can be improved by adding composite materials and pore-forming agents. Producers can attain desired properties suited for particular wastewater treatment requirements by mixing geopolymer matrices with different additives. This entails strengthening adsorption capabilities for heavy metals and organic contaminants as well as resistance to fouling.

Hydrothermal synthesis

This method creates geopolymer materials with increased porosity and surface area by applying high pressure and high temperature. Hydrothermal techniques are useful for adsorption procedures in wastewater treatment because they can create intricate three-dimensional pore networks that enhance mass transfer characteristics.

From Above discussion it is clear that fundamental factor in GPM manufacturing is to maintain the porosity. Porosity enhance efficiency of filtration, adsorption, mechanical stability etc. Researchers are enhancing further these techniques to treat contaminated water sources.

Schematic diagram of geopolymer preparation

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