Organic Contamination of Food

Author: Aqsa Iqbal

Abstract

Organic Contamination of Food. Organic compounds and their derivatives are among the most important and widely used additives in the food industry. Contamination is the strong and persistent sensation of being polluted, diseased, or threatened as a result of prolonged contact with a filthy, impure, contagious, or hazardous person, place, or thing. Fear, disgust, dirtiness, moral impurity, and disgrace are among the negative feelings that accompany the sensation of contamination. Food contamination is generally defined as foods that are spoiled or tainted because they either contain microorganisms, such as bacteria or parasites, or toxic substances that make them unfit for consumption Food contamination is caused by contaminants and they can be natural or synthetic. It can be physical, chemical, or biological, and organic contamination comes under chemical contamination, Organic acids, polyphenols and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are the major organic contaminants. CCDs, OCPs, PCBs, PCBDs, PFASs, PAHs, dioxins, and furans are the most common organic contaminants of food, and they may be present in foodstuffs of daily uses like egg, meat, fish, oil, vegetable, fruit, etc. Organic contaminants in food cause serious health effects like reproductive problems, endocrine disruption, cardiovascular disease, cancer, obesity, increased blood pressure, diabetes, neurological disorders, DNA damage, cancer, and liver injury. Different types of organic contaminants can be detected in food by extraction techniques like SOX, SLE, PLE, MAE, UAE, MSPD, LLE, SPE, SBSE, separation techniques like GC, LC, GC x GC, and detection techniques like electron capture detector, MS, HRMS, MS/MS, TOF-MS. The way to prevent organic contaminants in food is by reducing their amount in an environment so that they can be prevented
from entering into the food chain.

Introduction: Role of Organic Compounds in Food

Organic compounds are the compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and their derivatives. They are present in different foodstuffs of daily use. The most common organic compounds found in food are organic acids and polyphenols. Organic acids and their derivatives are among the most important and widely used additives in beverage, food, and feed production. Organic acids are carbon-based acids that are acidic. As a result, biotechnology is used to generate several of these acids. Acetic acid (one carboxyl group), malic acid (two carboxyl groups), and citric acid (three carboxyl groups) are all good examples, especially for beverage, food, and feed applications. Acids and their derivatives are used as acidity regulators in food and drinks to regulate and sustain a specified pH level to balance beverages and foods. Organic acids and their derivatives have antioxidant and synergistic properties. Primary antioxidants are phenolic acids like gallic acid and ferulic acid, as well as their derivatives. Synergists include ascorbic acid and citric acid, as well as their derivatives. Organic acid salts, such as gluconates and citrates, are commonly used as food firming agents. Firming agents are substances added to food during processing to maintain the food’s rigidity (mechanical stability). In the food industry, preservation is essential. They are also commonly utilized as preservatives and as basic chemicals for the synthesis of other food additives due to several advantages. Esters, for example, are the product of carboxylic acid and alcohol combinations. Organic acids’ small ester molecules are frequently used as flavors (e.g., butyl acetate or ethyl lactate) (Quitmann et al., 2014). Polyphenols are a structural class of organic substances that are recognized due to the existence of benzene rings bearing one or more hydroxyl moieties. They are mostly natural but can also be manufactured or semi-synthetic. Flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids, as well as their chemically altered or polymerized compounds, are all referred to as flavonoids. Polyphenol-rich diets have been shown to protect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, pancreatitis, gastrointestinal disorders, lung damage, and neurodegenerative illness over time. Polyphenol consumption can lead to several negative side effects. Polyphenolic phytoconstituents in drinks have been linked to harmful results., especially in people having deteriorating illness, epilepsy, thyroid disease, high blood pressure, or heart disease (Williamson, 2017).

Contamination of Food

Contamination is the strong and persistent sensation of being polluted, diseased, or threatened as a result of prolonged contact with a filthy, impure, contagious, or hazardous person, place, or thing. Fear, disgust, dirtiness, moral impurity, and disgrace are among the negative feelings that accompany the sensation of contamination. Feces, putrefying flesh, and decomposing vegetable waste are all examples of contaminants. Contamination can result from potentially hazardous agents including chemicals, pesticides, and even some foods (Rachman & therapy, 2004).

There are different kinds of contaminants:

Fig 1: Types of Contaminants

• Natural contaminants, which are naturally present in food
• Synthetic contaminants, which are purposely introduced in food. Food additives, veterinary medications, and pesticides are examples of artificially introduced chemicals.

Metal concentrations rise as a result of pollutant release into the environment, contaminating the food supply. Food and food contact surfaces might become polluted with microorganisms in the food processing sector due to contact with soil, water, fertilizers, equipment, humans, and animals. The cleanliness and cleanability of a surface are affected by the presence of particles on it. In most circumstances, stainless steel is the preferred surface in the food sector (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Food contamination is described as foods that have rotted or been polluted as a result of the presence of microorganisms such as parasites or bacteria, or poisonous chemicals that make them harmful for human usage (Hussain, 2016). Contamination of food happens when bacteria or other pathogens enter food that is not supposed to be there, rendering the food unhealthy to eat. It can also refer to foodstuffs that have spoiled due to the presence of bacteria that render them unsafe for eating. Figure 1 depicts several foods that are highly polluted. When foods get contaminated with a potentially dangerous agent, food safety is at risk. Foodstuffs like meat, dairy products, berries and cherries, potatoes, coffee, peaches, spinach, grains and beans, pears, apples, and grapes are more liable to spoilage (Sadiku et al., 2020):

Fig 2: Top Highly Contaminated Foods

Contaminants are characterized based on where they came from and how they entered into the food (Kamala & Kumar, 2018). Food contaminants can be defined as any substance detected inside food during the manufacturing process, farming methods, treatment, packing, transportation, or storage of food, or from environmental sources (Sadiku et al., 2020). A biological, chemical, or physical food contaminant can be present in food with the former being the most frequent. These pollutants can reach the supply chain (from farm to fork) in a variety of ways, making a food product unfit for ingestion (Hussain, 2016).

Food Contamination as a Global Challenge

In various documents and articles, the World Health Organization (WHO) has identified contamination of food as a worldwide issue (Kamala & Kumar, 2018; Sadiku et al., 2020). “Contamination of food in one location may endanger the health of those on the other side of the globe,” according to a statement (Kamala & Kumar, 2018). In reality, a large proportion of individuals globally will contract a waterborne or foodborne illness at one phase or another in their life cycles. As a result, of contaminated food huge numbers of people are infected, with many of them dying therefore. In this situation, ” contamination of food ” becomes a severe problem. The number of food contamination problems is large and expanding (Hussain, 2016).

Types of Food Contamination

Contamination of food is divided into three types (Sadiku et al., 2020):

• Physical Contamination
• Chemical Contamination
• Biological Contamination

Fig 3: Types of Food Contamination

Physical Contamination

When physical items enter food, this happens. Metals, glass, hair, fingernails, pests, jewelry, and dirt are all common causes of physical contamination (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Biological Contamination

When bacteria, fungi, or other harmful microorganisms contaminate food, this occurs. Food poisoning, food spoilage, and food-borne illness all occur as a result of biological contamination. Although all foods can contain diseases that are harmful to humans, some foods are more susceptible to biological contamination than others (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Chemical Contamination

Food that has been poisoned by a chemical agent is regarded as chemically contaminated food. Agrochemicals, kitchen equipment, unwashed fruits and vegetables, and food containers made of non-safe plastics are all common causes of chemical contamination. Accidents involving nuclear power plants can result in severe environmental pollution and even death (Sadiku et al., 2020).

Chemical Contaminants

As a result of pesticide residue and other pollutants in the environment found in the availability of food, contaminants from chemicals have become a hazard regarding food safety. A substantial number of contaminants emitted into the environment by fast-increasing agricultural and industrial sectors have entered into the food chain. Prevention of contamination of food is a health of the general public concern, given the proliferation of chemical pollutants in foodstuffs, and the substantial threats to one’s health they provide (Marriott et al., 2018). Organic contamination of food occurs when the organic compounds are present in abundance in the food than the required amount that may be harmful to the health of human beings. The presence of more than the required number of organic compounds causes different diseases in human life and put their life in danger.

Sources of Food Contamination

Soil, sewage, live animals, external surfaces, and the internal organs of meat animals can all contaminate raw materials. Diseased animals are another source of contamination in animal meals, though developments in health care have practically eradicated this source. Contamination from chemical sources can occur when chemical supplies are accidentally mixed with foods. Additional microbiological or chemical contamination can be caused by substances. The sources involved in the food contamination processes include (Sadiku et al., 2020):

Fig 4: Sources of Food Contamination

Organic Contaminants in Food and their Sources

A subgroup of toxic organic substances, largely of anthropogenic origin, that are typically classed as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) has received a lot of attention in recent decades. These are a form of a long- lasting carbon-containing organic compound, bioaccumulative, and can travel long distances. POPs present in the environment fall into three categories (Guo et al., 2019):

Fig 5: Types of POPs (Guo et al., 2019)

Common Classes of POPs in Food

Chlorodibenzo-P- Dioxin (CDD)

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) include polychlorinated dibenzo-p- dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (D/Fs), as well as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). All three (D/Fs, PCBs, or D/Fs) are lipophilic, have toxicity, and are present in our supply of food (Archer & Jenkins, 2017). Several incidences of high dioxin levels in food items have been reported in recent years as a result of the usage of infected animal feed components (Huwe, Smith, & Chemistry, 2005). Dioxin toxicity in humans is proportional to the amount deposited in the body over a lifetime. Dermal impacts such as chloracne are the acute health consequences on those who have been exposed to high doses of dioxins. Other major concerns include the danger of cancer, as well as reproductive and developmental impacts based on animal studies (Durand et al., 2008).

Organochlorine Pesticide (OCPs)

contact with OCP leftovers or OCP-contaminated diets, they may become infected. Vegetables can be contaminated via root absorption through contaminated sites or prolonged exposure to OCPs (Guo et al., 2019).

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs)

Inhalation, skin contact, and the ingestion of contaminated food could all expose humans to PCB/BDE. The direct pathway for BDE/PCB deposition in the body of humans is through dietary intake. Food consumption, primarily fish, meat, and dairy products, accounts for about 90% of the body burden of PCB. Despite the low content of PCBs in foods like vegetables and rice, they should be considered a possible and substantial source of PCB consumption due to the sheer amount ingested (Guo et al., 2019).

Dioxin and Furan

Many industrial operations having chemical substances that contain chlorine in them produce PCDF and PCDD, which are well-known by- products. Dioxins/furans are primarily found in foods that contain more fatty content like dairy products, fish, and meat (Guo et al., 2019). Incremation of wastes from hospitals and open burning are common in underdeveloped countries, and combustion of waste is an important contributor of dioxins and furans. s in these countries (Fiedler, 2007). As a result, large quantities of dioxins/furans have been discovered in the milk and flesh of animals living near incineration plants (Adamse et al., 2017).

Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) and PAHs

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of compounds made up of two or more two benzenoid rings that are found in abundance (Guo et al., 2019). Diet is the most common source of human exposure to PAH in nonsmokers, accounting for more than 70% of overall exposure (Martorell et al., 2010). Ingestion-based exposure estimations are influenced by a variety of factors include (Nwaneshiudu et al., 2007):

• types and quantities of food consumed
• frequency of consumption
• addition and loss of food contaminants during preparation and processing (e.g. smoked foods)
• seasonal changes causing variations in the contaminant content in foods.

The amount consumed in the diet is mostly determined by the method of preparation as well as the risk of food contamination resulting from packing materials and manufacturing (Martorell et al., 2010). The main health concern about PAH is that some of them are highly carcinogenic in laboratory animals, as well as being implicated in various types of human cancers, primarily breast, lung, and colon cancers, due to metabolic activation of dioepoxides in mammalian cells, which causes errors in DNA replication and mutation, initiating the carcinogenic process. Food preparation and handling practices can introduce PAHs into the food (Marriott et al., 2018). According to a dietary survey conducted in the UK, cereals and oils/fats account for a significant portion of PAH intake (Dennis et al., 1983). This type of PAH contamination happens most commonly in technological processes when food is exposed to combustion products, such as direct fire drying (Dennis et al., 1991).

Fig 6: Common Classes of POPs in Food

Sources of Organic Contaminants in Food

Processing, packing, transportation, and storage are all common processes in the food preparation process. Each stage could be a possible POPs’ point of entry. POPs have the potential to contaminate food in a variety of ways. This type of PAH contamination happens most commonly in technological processes when food is exposed to combustion products, such as direct fire drying (Dennis et al., 1991). Raw materials, for example, may include POPs that have been transferred from the outside environment. Because POPs have a high resistance to decay, they can last for a long time in the environment. POP contamination of food and feed sources is largely due to previously released POPs in the environment. POPs can be successfully transmitted from the atmosphere to the crop, and eventually to foodstuff. Activities involving preparing food, during which POPs may be purposely added by humans, are another source of POPs. Some of the foodstuffs that are contaminated with POPs are: (Durand et al., 2008).

Fig 7: POPs in Food Stuffs

POPs are not easily chemical, biological, and photolytic degradable in the environment. As a result, POPs can persist for a longer duration in the atmosphere after they’ve been emitted. Some POPs have a very long half- life of the year or even a decade, allowing them to remain the part of ecosystem until animals and plants consume them. POPs accumulate in the body of organisms’ fatty tissue and hence as they travel through the atmosphere, they get more condensed. The tight connection between carbon and chlorine/bromine/fluorine in the majority of POPs makes them not easily degradable through environmental degradation which includes chemical, biological, and photolytic reactions. POPs which do not contain halogens are likewise persistent due to their stable chemical structures. As a result, POPs can persist in the atmosphere for a longer duration after being emitted. Some POPs have a half-life of a year or decade, allowing them to persist in the surroundings until animals or plants consume them. POPs can bio-accumulate in alive animals’ adipose tissues and hence grow effectively as they go up the food web. These are the small group of compounds that are long-lasting, bioaccumulative, and poisonous (PBTs) that may travel long distances (Rosenfeld & Feng, 2011). Because of these characteristics, animals, and humans all over the globe can face exposure to POPs for longer periods (Marriott et al., 2018). The ingestion of contaminated food, particularly animal-derived food, accounts for more than 90% of human exposure to POPs (Rodríguez-Hernández et al., 2015). POPs are primarily ingested through fish (Fair et al., 2018). POPs have been utilized and released into the environment as a result of a variety of human activities, including those in the industrial and agricultural sectors. POPs released into the environment can pollute livestock, crops, fisheries, and water use for drinking purposes, putting human health at risk. Pesticides like dieldrin and DDT for example, have been routinely employed in crop production in recent decades to boost crop output and eradicate undesired pests. The use of OCPs, on the other hand, can easily introduce toxins into water, crops, and wildlife. Pesticide residue is one of the most regularly identified dietary pollutants, according to studies (Schafer et al., 2002).

Health Effects of Organic Contaminants

POPs pose a significant danger to people’s health because of their bioaccumulation in human adipose tissue and their long-term properties. Exposure to such substances has been linked to endocrine disruption, reproductive issues, cancer, cardiovascular disease, overweight, and diabetic problems, among other major health issues. POP consumption in pregnancy is harmful not only to the mother but also to the babies. Prenatal exposure to POPs has been linked to birth weight loss (Cabrera-Rodríguez et al., 2019; Guo et al., 2014), child obesity, high BP (Vafeiadi et al., 2015), and endocrine disruption (Hertz‐Picciotto et al., 2008; Papadopoulou et al., 2013). POPs have the following health risks as shown in the figure (Guo et al., 2019):

Fig 8: Health hazards associated with POPs in food.

Cancers and Endocrine Disruption

The regulation of hormones that manage various bodily activities is controlled by the endocrine system. There has been strong evidence in the last 2 – 3 decades indicating several POPs were likely to cause endocrine disturbance (Li et al., 2008). POPs’ endocrine-disturbance effects do have the potential to damage the sexual, neurologic, and immunity, raising the hormone-dependent threat of malignancies and interfering with differences in sexuality, growth, and development (Sanderson, 2006). POP- contaminated food has been linked to malignancies and hypospadias in fetal and infant men, this also results in endometriosis, cystic ovaries, and endometriosis in females (Li et al., 2006). Endocrine disruptors include DDT, dieldrin, toxaphene, chlordane, mirex, endosulfan, HCB, and other OCPs (Guo et al., 2019).

Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases

In response to the negative consequences of POPs on the hormonal system, it has been indicated that they can cause heart disease (Ljunggren et al., 2014) and metabolism problems like diabetes and obesity (Færch et al., 2012). According to several recent researches, increased POP consumption can cause diabetes (Zong et al., 2018). POP levels in the blood were shown to be high in diabetic and prediabetic people (Færch et al., 2012). PFOA, dioxin, and DDT exposure in pregnant women cause fatness in infants (Zong et al., 2018). Individuals with high levels of OCP, PCB, and PBDE in their bodies were found to have a higher weight gain (Lee et al., 2011).

Detection Methods of Organic Contaminants

The past few decades have seen the advancement of techniques for evaluating POPs in diverse food matrices. POP identification in foodstuffs needs a multi-step approach that includes sample processing, sensitive and selective experimental methods, and quantity improvement and quality control (Guo et al., 2019). When evaluating food, sample preprocessing is required to reduce the matrices effect because a poor detection limit is needed for POP detection. pH adjustment, filtration, clean-up, extraction, and enriching techniques are all part of the sample preparation process for detecting POPs in food (Dimpe & Nomngongo, 2016). Solid-phase extraction, supercritical fluid, microwave-assisted extraction, solid-phase microextraction, liquid–phase micro-extraction, liquid–liquid extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, and stir bar sorptive extraction are some of the different techniques of sample formation have been discussed (Guo et al., 2019; Ochiai et al., 2011). Highlights of the most prevalent analytical technique for identifying POPs in various dietary matrices are as follows:

Fig 9: Detection Methods of Organic Contaminants

Extraction Methods

Liquid–Liquid Extraction (LLE)

The use of liquid–liquid extract (LLE) in traditional techniques for the detection of POPs in milk/water, which include PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and OCPs (Chung & Chen, 2011), has been commonly recognized. LLE differentiates compounds depending on how they dissolve in two immiscible liquid phases, generally water and an organic solvent. As a result, huge volumes of organic solvents are needed (Ochiai et al., 2011). An improved LLE approach, dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction, was created to reduce solvent usage. Organic analytes (OCPs, PAHs, PCBs, and PBDEs) are extracted from specimens of water using dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction (Zgoła-Grześkowiak & Grześkowiak, 2011). Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction is becoming increasingly popular in separating science because it is cheap and inexpensive (Guo et al., 2019).

Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE)

Solid-phase extraction can be another approach for decreasing the amount of solvent in a liquid sample. When evaluating organic chemicals for water and wastewater, the US EPA has employed them as an alternative to LLE (Andrade et al., 2016). Chemicals in a liquid mixture are separated by solid-phase extraction depending upon various preferences of an analyte plus interferences for the solid phase (sorbent). PFOS and PFOA have been extracted from water samples using this method (Tang, 2013). Solid-phase extraction, when compared to standard LLE, saves a lot of money on solvent and is very easy to use. Moreover, there are certain drawbacks to conventional solid-phase extraction, like analyte loss during the pre-concentration stage and sorbent bed blockage. To lessen sample loss and contaminants, solid-phase micro-extraction and stir bar extraction have developed in recent years. The stir bar extraction has a polar chemical constraint, whereas following sample extraction, a clean-up step is required for solid phase microextraction. PBDEs, OCPs, PCBs, and in-water samples have been extracted using both techniques (Ochiai et al., 2011).

Soxhlet Extraction (SE)

Pressured liquid extraction, Soxhlet extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, ultrasonic-assisted, and matrix solid-phase dispersion extraction are all commonly detected extraction procedures. The traditional Soxhlet extraction technique is indeed widely used for a variety of materials and analytes, including dioxins/furans and dioxin-like PCBs in foodstuffs (Chung & Chen, 2011). Moreover, the extraction method takes a long time and consumes a lot of solvent. Furthermore, the requirement for evaporative cooling following sample extraction precludes the use of heat-sensitive substances that may deteriorate caused to long-term heating (Guo et al., 2019).

Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)

Pressurized liquid extraction uses increased temperature and pressure to extract more components from sample matrices. Using pressured liquid extraction, PAHs, PCBs, PCDFs, and PCDDs have been extracted from fatty foods like eggs, fish, as well as meat (Carabias-Martínez et al., 2005).

Microwave-Assisted Extraction

The solvent is heated using microwaves and enhances its absorption into the sample matrix in microwave-assisted extraction. OCPs have been extracted from food using this method (Chung & Chen, 2011). This extraction process is beneficial as it reduces the timing of the process, less solvent usage, and enhances the efficiency of the process. Although it has restrictions like costly equipment, a volatile solvent, and a hygienic operation (Guo et al., 2019).

Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction

Ultrasonic-assisted extraction is an easy and expensive method of reducing thermal performance using ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic-assisted extraction was used to identify OCPs and PAHs in foods (Tadeo et al., 2010).

Supercritical Fluid Extraction

A mixture of supercritical fluid and analytes is used to recover analytes employing supercritical fluid as the extracting solvent. Carbon dioxide is the most widely used supercritical fluid. OCPs have been extracted from oil, meat, eggs, and butter using this approach (Fiddleret al., 1999).

Drawbacks of Extraction Methods

Because certain unwanted organic molecules are recovered with POPs, all of these extraction procedures have post-extraction cleaning problems. The cleansing phase removes any interference materials from the extract before it is suitable for instrument investigation. Due to the time- consuming nature of traditional purification techniques, automated cleaning systems have been developed. However, Traditional cleaning systems are popular due to the high cost of automated purification systems (Kedikoglou et al., 2018).

Separation and Detection Methods

The most extensively used technology for POP measurement in food and environmental materials is mass spectrometry (MS) combined with chromatography (Portoles et al., 2016).

Gas Chromatography (GC)

One of the most widely employed chromatographic processes is gas chromatography (GC). The heating temperatures of the components and their contact with the solid phase of a column influence GC isolation. The majority of POPs have moderate volatility, having polarity ranging from mild to non-polar. Due to their physiochemical characteristics, many of these compounds are adapted to be analyzed through GC–MS, except compounds that are about PFAS, whose measuring is done with the help of the LC–MS/MS approach. But no one column is capable of separating every PCB and dioxin/furan element. Complete two-dimensional GC was introduced to overcome this problem. When two columns are carried through each other, there are two points of difference due to distinct physical and chemical characteristics. The 2D GC can greatly enhance selection (capacity of peak) and sensitivities when compared to single columns (Guo et al., 2019).

Electron Capture Detector

Electron capture detection is a limited detection that is commonly employed to identify PCBs and OCPs in various foods (Sharma et al., 2014). Electron capture negative chemical ionizing is a softer ionizing technique that is used to identify POPs. The electrons capturing negative ionizing technique and the electron ionization method are used to analyze PCB and PBDEs utilizing GC–MS (Guo et al., 2019).

High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HRMS)

GC in combination with ¹³C-labeled isotopic dilution high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) is regarded as a gold reference for the identification of some POPs like dioxins and furans (Garcia-Bermejo et al., 2015). Measurement is accurate with straight 13C-labeled isotopic dilution. Other MS equipment, like time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF–MS), can be used in place of ¹³C-labeled isotope dilution HRMS because of the equipment’s high price and the requirement for expert workers (Guo et al., 2019).

GC×GC TOF–MS

Dioxins and PCBs have been successfully detected in food using GC×GC TOF–MS. The selectivity of GC×GC TOF–MS might be enhanced by using a simultaneous approach (MS/MS) or enhancing chromatographic separation (Garcia-Bermejo et al., 2015). To identify the POPs in foodstuff and feed additives samples like fish and vegetable oil, recent investigations have demonstrated that GC combined with triple- quadrupole simultaneous MS performed similarly to GC-HRMS (Focant et al., 2005).

Ways to Control Organic Contamination in Food

To protect the population against POPs, and to prevent organic pollutants from entering the food supply, regulatory systems must be developed (Guo et al., 2019). It can be reduced by preventing POPs from entering the food supply by reducing them in the environment.

Monitor Pops in Food

Because of POPs’ durability and lengthy portability, laws have been passed at both regional and international levels to defend public health and the environment. The Basel Convention on a Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Removal, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Process for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Commerce, and the Stockholm Convention on restricting the use manufacturing of POPs are all trade agreements on handling POPs and other dangerous chemicals (Matthies et al., 2016). In addition to such rules, worldwide organizations developed monitoring systems to check POP levels in foodstuffs to safeguard the population from unsafe food to ensure food safety. Because compounds having nature similar to dioxins are some of the most dangerous pollutants, many groups belonging to government and non-government have identified an acceptable level of PCDD/Fs and PCB ingestion (Leeuwen et al., 2000; Vigh et al., 2013; Vogt et al., 2012). Similar regulations are in place for some PFOAs and PAHs as well. Both international and national monitor schemes are designed to ensure that POP contamination in food is less than the dangerous level. Feed supply management is also essential for preventing POPs from entering the food web (Guo et al., 2019).

Methods of Removal of Organic Contaminants

Another strategy for reducing the danger of POP contamination in food is to create technologies for removing POPs from the environment. It would then lessen the risk of contamination in food. Incineration, solvent extraction, gas-phase chemical reduction, alkali metal reduction, and landfilling are examples of traditional methods (Ashraf, 2017). Traditional approaches, on the other hand, have been ineffective in eliminating POPs. Furthermore, these techniques are costly or may lead to the production of more toxic compounds during the decomposition process. Bioremediation is an alternative method for biodegrading contaminants in an environmentally beneficial manner using microorganisms. Bioremediation methods for POPs have been studied.

Dietary Make-Up

Individual intake of POPs also is influenced by nutritional makeup. Because of POPs’ fat solubility, high-fat items like animal food, milk, and its components are more susceptible to POP contamination as compared to other products. Reduced consumption of meat, dairy, and fish, as well as choosing the lowest fat option, are two dietary options for reducing POP exposure (Vogt et al., 2012). Other sources of food contaminated with POP, such as the packaging of food and preparation procedures must also be monitored. The introduction of pollutants from food that is processed can be minimized via the usage of safe storage solutions such as coating and edible films, as well as techniques of processing such as indirect heating and decontaminated oil (Guo et al., 2019).

Conclusion

Organic compounds are present in foodstuffs of daily life usage like meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, etc. However, due to different human or natural activities, their concentration in food has been increased and causes food contamination. Food contamination is any undesirable change in the food that may cause unpleasant effects on human beings and can cause health problems for them. So organic compounds can act as organic contaminants if they exceed a certain limit and can cause serious health problems. The sources of organic contaminants can be natural or synthetic. Polyphenols, organic acids, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are among the major classes of organic contaminants. These contaminants cause serious health problems in humans like obesity, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, endocrine disorders, liver injury, etc. and thus disturb the normal functionality of the human body. Among the above-mentioned classes, CCDs, OCPs, PCBs, PCBDs, PFASs, PAHs, dioxins and furans are the most common organic contaminants of food, and they may be present in foodstuffs of daily uses like eggs, meat, fish, oil, vegetable, fruit, etc. These organic contaminants in food can be detected by various techniques like SOX, SLE, PLE, MAE, UAE, MSPD, LLE, SPE, SBSE, GC, LC, GC x GC, electron capture detector, MS, HRMS, MS/MS, TOF-MS. Organic contaminants can be controlled by limiting the usage of organic compounds in daily life or removing them from the environment by using various techniques including gas-phase chemical reduction, solvent extraction, alkali metal reduction, landfilling, incineration, and preventing them from becoming part of the food chain.

References

• Adamse, P., Schoss, S., Theelen, R. M., Hoogenboom, R. L. J. F. A., & A, C. P. (2017). Levels of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food of animal origin in the Netherlands during the period 2001–2011. 34(1), 78-92.
• Andrade-Eiroa, A., Canle, M., Leroy-Cancellieri, V., & Cerdà, V. J. T. T. i. A. C. (2016). Solid-phase extraction of organic compounds: A critical review (Part I). 80, 641-654.
• Archer, J. C., & Jenkins Jr, R. G. J. J. o. C. B. (2017). Automated milk fat extraction for the analyses of persistent organic pollutants. 1041, 70- 76.
• Ashraf, M. A. J. E. S., & Research, P. (2017). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): a global issue, a global challenge. In (Vol. 24, pp. 4223-4227): Springer.
• Cabrera-Rodríguez, R., Luzardo, O. P., Almeida-González, M., Boada, L. D., Zumbado, M., Acosta-Dacal, A. . Henríquez-Hernández, L. A.
• J. E. r. (2019). Association between prenatal exposure to multiple persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and growth indicators in newborns. 171, 285-292.
• Carabias-Martínez, R., Rodríguez-Gonzalo, E., Revilla-Ruiz, P., & Hernández-Méndez, J. J. J. o. C. A. (2005). Pressurized liquid extraction in the analysis of food and biological samples. 1089(1-2), 1- 17.
• Chung, S. W., & Chen, B. L. J. J. o. C. A. (2011). Determination of organochlorine pesticide residues in fatty foods: A critical review on the analytical methods and their testing capabilities. 1218(33), 5555- 5567.
• Dennis, M., Massey, R., Cripps, G., Venn, I., Howarth, N., Lee, G. J. F. A., & Contaminants. (1991). Factors affecting the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content of cereals, fats and other food products. 8(4), 517- 530.
• Dennis, M., Massey, R., McWeeny, D., Knowles, M., Watson, D. J. F., & toxicology, c. (1983). Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in UK total diets. 21(5), 569-574.
• Dimpe, K. M., & Nomngongo, P. N. J. T. T. i. A. C. (2016). Current sample preparation methodologies for analysis of emerging pollutants in different environmental matrices. 82, 199-207.
• Durand, B., Dufour, B., Fraisse, D., Defour, S., Duhem, K., & Le-Barillec,
• K. J. C. (2008). Levels of PCDDs, PCDFs and dioxin-like PCBs in raw cow’s milk collected in France in 2006. 70(4), 689-693.
• Færch, K., Højlund, K., Vind, B. F., Vaag, A., Dalgård, C., Nielsen, F., . . . Metabolism. (2012). Increased serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants among prediabetic individuals: potential role of altered substrate oxidation patterns. 97(9), E1705-E1713.
• Fair, P. A., White, N. D., Wolf, B., Arnott, S. A., Kannan, K., Karthikraj, R., & Vena, J. E. J. E. r. (2018). Persistent organic pollutants in fish from Charleston Harbor and tributaries, South Carolina, United States: A risk assessment. 167, 598-613.
• Fiddler, W., Pensabene, J. W., Gates, R. A., Donoghue, D. J. J. J. o. a., & chemistry, f. (1999). Supercritical fluid extraction of organochlorine pesticides in eggs. 47(1), 206-211.
• Fiedler, H. J. C. (2007). National PCDD/PCDF release inventories under the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants. 67(9), S96- S108.
• Focant, J.-F., Eppe, G., Scippo, M.-L., Massart, A.-C., Pirard, C., Maghuin-Rogister, G., & De Pauw, E. J. J. o. C. A. (2005). Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with isotope dilution time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the measurement of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in foodstuffs: Comparison with other methods. 1086(1-2), 45-60.
• Garcia-Bermejo, A., Abalos, M., Sauló, J., Abad, E., González, M. J., & Gomara, B. J. A. C. A. (2015). Triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry: A real alternative to high resolution magnetic sector instrument for the analysis of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, furans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. 889, 156-165.
• Guo, H., Jin, Y., Cheng, Y., Leaderer, B., Lin, S., Holford, T. R., . . . Zhu, Y. J. C. (2014). Prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides and infant birth weight in China. 110, 1-7.
• Guo, W., Pan, B., Sakkiah, S., Yavas, G., Ge, W., Zou, W., . . . health, p. (2019). Persistent organic pollutants in food: contamination sources, health effects and detection methods. 16(22), 4361.
• Hertz‐Picciotto, I., Park, H. Y., Dostal, M., Kocan, A., Trnovec, T., Sram, R. J. B., . . . toxicology. (2008). Prenatal exposures to persistent and non‐persistent organic compounds and effects on immune system development. 102(2), 146-154.
• Hussain, M. (2016). Food contamination: major challenges of the future.
• Foods 5: 21. In. Hussain, M. A. J. F. (2016). Food contamination: major challenges of the future. In (Vol. 5, pp. 21): MDPI.
• Huwe, J. K., Smith, D. J. J. J. o. A., & Chemistry, F. (2005). Laboratory and on-farm studies on the bioaccumulation and elimination of dioxins from a contaminated mineral supplement fed to dairy cows. 53(6), 2362-2370.
• Kamala, K., & Kumar, V. P. (2018). Food products and food contamination. In Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation (pp. 1-19): Elsevier.
• Kedikoglou, K., Costopoulou, D., Vassiliadou, I., Bakeas, E., & Leondiadis, L. J. C. (2018). An effective and low cost carbon based clean-up method for PCDD/Fs and PCBs analysis in food. 206, 531- 538.
• Lee, D.-H., Steffes, M. W., Sjödin, A., Jones, R. S., Needham, L. L., & Jacobs Jr, D. R. J. P. o. (2011). Low dose organochlorine pesticides
• and polychlorinated biphenyls predict obesity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance among people free of diabetes. 6(1), e15977.
• Li, J., Li, N., Ma, M., Giesy, J. P., & Wang, Z. J. T. l. (2008). In vitro profiling of the endocrine disrupting potency of organochlorine pesticides. 183(1-3), 65-71.
• Ljunggren, S. A., Helmfrid, I., Salihovic, S., van Bavel, B., Wingren, G., Lindahl, M., & Karlsson, H. J. E. i. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants distribution in lipoprotein fractions in relation to cardiovascular disease and cancer. 65, 93-99.
• Marriott, N. G., Schilling, M. W., Gravani, R. B., Marriott, N. G., Schilling, M. W., & Gravani, R. B. J. P. o. f. s. (2018). Food contamination sources. 83-91.
• Martorell, I., Perelló, G., Martí-Cid, R., Castell, V., Llobet, J. M., & Domingo, J. L. J. E. i. (2010). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in foods and estimated PAH intake by the population of Catalonia, Spain: temporal trend. 36(5), 424-432.
• Matthies, M., Solomon, K., Vighi, M., Gilman, A., Tarazona, J. V. J. E. S. P., & Impacts. (2016). The origin and evolution of assessment criteria for persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) chemicals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). 18(9), 1114-1128.
• Nwaneshiudu, O. C., Autenrieth, R. L., McDonald, T. J., Donnelly, K. C., Degollado, E. D., Abusalih, A. A. J. J. o. E. S., & B, H. P. (2007). Risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure from ingested food: the Azerbaijan case study. 42(2), 201-209.
• Ochiai, N., Ieda, T., Sasamoto, K., Takazawa, Y., Hashimoto, S., Fushimi, A., & Tanabe, K. J. J. o. C. A. (2011). Stir bar sorptive extraction and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to high- resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry for ultra-trace analysis of organochlorine pesticides in river water. 1218(39), 6851-6860.
• Papadopoulou, E., Vafeiadi, M., Agramunt, S., Mathianaki, K., Karakosta, P., Spanaki, A., . . . Koutis, A. J. S. o. t. t. e. (2013). Maternal diet, prenatal exposure to dioxins and other persistent organic pollutants and anogenital distance in children. 461, 222-229.
• Portoles, T., Sales, C., Ábalos, M., Sauló, J., & Abad, E. J. A. C. A. (2016). Evaluation of the capabilities of atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source coupled to tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of dioxin-like polychlorobiphenyls in complex-matrix food samples. 937, 96-105.
• Qing Li, Q., Loganath, A., Seng Chong, Y., Tan, J., Philip Obbard, J. J. J. o. T., & Environmental Health, P. A. (2006). Persistent organic pollutants and adverse health effects in humans. 69(21), 1987-2005.
• Quitmann, H., Fan, R., Czermak, P. J. B. o. F., & Additives, F. (2014). Acidic organic compounds in beverage, food, and feed production. 91- 141.
• Rachman, S. J. B. r., & therapy. (2004). Fear of contamination. 42(11), 1227-1255.
• Rodríguez-Hernández, Á., Camacho, M., Boada, L. D., Ruiz-Suarez, N., Almeida-González, M., Henríquez-Hernández, L. A., . . . Luzardo, O.
• P. J. J. o. a. a. r. (2015). Daily intake of anthropogenic pollutants through yogurt consumption in the Spanish population. 43(4), 373-383.
• Rosenfeld, E., & Feng, H. J. R. o. H. W. (2011). Bioaccumulation of dioxins, PCBs, and PAHs. 201-213.
• Sadiku, M. N., Ashaolu, T. J., & Musa, S. M. J. I. J. A. S. R. E. (2020).
• Food contamination: a primer. 6(03), 01-07. Sanderson, J. T. J. T. s. (2006). The steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway as a target for endocrine-disrupting chemicals. 94(1), 3-21.
• Schafer, K. S., Kegley, S. E. J. J. o. E., & Health, C. (2002). Persistent toxic chemicals in the US food supply. 56(11), 813-817.
• Sharma, B. M., Bharat, G. K., Tayal, S., Nizzetto, L., Čupr, P., & Larssen, T. J. E. i. (2014). Environment and human exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in India: A systematic review of recent and historical data. 66, 48-64.
• Tadeo, J. L., Sánchez-Brunete, C., Albero, B., & García-Valcárcel, A. I. J. J. o. c. A. (2010). Application of ultrasound-assisted extraction to the determination of contaminants in food and soil samples. 1217(16), 2415-2440.
• Tang, H. P.-o. J. T. T. i. A. C. (2013). Recent development in analysis of persistent organic pollutants under the Stockholm Convention. 45, 48- 66.
• Vafeiadi, M., Georgiou, V., Chalkiadaki, G., Rantakokko, P., Kiviranta, H., Karachaliou, M., . . . Vassilaki, M. J. E. h. p. (2015). Association of prenatal exposure to persistent organic pollutants with obesity and cardiometabolic traits in early childhood: the Rhea mother–child cohort (Crete, Greece). 123(10), 1015-1021.
• van Leeuwen, F. R., Feeley, M., Schrenk, D., Larsen, J. C., Farland, W., & Younes, M. J. C. (2000). Dioxins: WHO’s tolerable daily intake (TDI) revisited. 40(9-11), 1095-1101.
• Vigh, É., Colombo, A., Benfenati, E., Håkansson, H., Berglund, M., Bódis, J., & Garai, J. J. S. o. t. t. e. (2013). Individual breast milk consumption and exposure to PCBs and PCDD/Fs in Hungarian infants: a time-course analysis of the first three months of lactation. 449, 336-344.
• Vogt, R., Bennett, D., Cassady, D., Frost, J., Ritz, B., & Hertz-Picciotto, I.J. E. H. (2012). Cancer and non-cancer health effects from food contaminant exposures for children and adults in California: a risk assessment. 11, 1-14.
• Williamson, G. J. N. b. (2017). The role of polyphenols in modern nutrition. 42(3), 226-235.
• Zgoła-Grześkowiak, A., & Grześkowiak, T. J. T. T. i. A. C. (2011). Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction. 30(9), 1382-1399.
• Zong, G., Valvi, D., Coull, B., Göen, T., Hu, F. B., Nielsen, F., . . . Sun, Q. J. E. i. (2018). Persistent organic pollutants and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective investigation among middle-aged women in Nurses’ Health Study II. 114, 334-342.

Previous Post: Antioxidant Properties of Coconut Water on Human Health to Reduce the Oxidative Stress

Follow Us on

FACEBOOK

INSTAGRAM

YOUTUBE