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Author: Maham Iqbal Introduction Spectroscopy is a fundamental analytical tool in scientific research, enabling the study of molecular structures, electronic transitions, and chemical interactions. Three key spectroscopic techniques—UV-Visible (UV-Vis), Infrared…
Author: Sana Noor Introduction Chemical bonding is the foundation of molecular and solid-state chemistry. Two crucial theories explaining bonding in molecules and coordination complexes are the Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)…
Author: Rimsha Nazir Introduction Transition metals are among the most versatile elements in the periodic table. These are found in the d-block. These metals exhibit unique properties that make them…
Author: Maham Nasir Gravimetric analysis is one of the oldest and most reliable methods for quantitative chemical analysis. It is based on the principle of measuring the mass of an…
Author: Sana Noor Introduction Covalent bonds are the foundation of countless chemical compounds, essential to life and industry. These bonds form when atoms share electrons to achieve stability. Unlike ionic…
Author: Fizzah Waseem Introduction In organic chemistry, elimination and substitution reactions often compete, making it essential to understand their differences. Two major elimination reactions, E1 (unimolecular elimination) and E2 (bimolecular…
Author: Izma Khan INTRODUCTION We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors, we borrow it from our children.Chief Seattle’s The negative impacts plastics have on Earth have been discussed…
Author: Sana Noor Chemical Bonding Chemical bonding is the force that holds atoms together to form molecules and compounds. It is central to understanding the behavior of matter and plays…
Author: Shumaila Anam Introduction Imagine soil as a living, breathing city. It’s home to minerals, water, air, and billions of microbes working nonstop to grow our food, clean our water,…
Author: Sahibzada Izhar Hussain Bacha The Dream of Unlimited Energy Imagine a world with limitless, clean, and safe energy. This is the promise of fusion energy, the same process that…